THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LOS ANGELES GIFT RIVERSIDE TEXTBOOKS IN EDUCATION EDITED BY ELLWOOD P. CUBBERLEY PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION LELANU STANFORD JUNIOR UNIVERSITY DIVISION OF SECONDARY EDUCATION UNDER THE EDITORIAL DIRECTION OF ALEXANDER INGLIS ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION HARVARD UNIVERSITY "'"Illl"' Mil'. PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION BY ALEXANDER INGLIS ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION HARVARD UNIVERSITY HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO Ku.Ulillll.lllillll.llllllliillllllllllllllllilllllllli.llllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllMtllllllllllllllllllllilllllllll Illllllllllllllllllllllllllilllllllllll I Illtllllilllllllllll IllllnC COPYRIGHT, 1918, BY ALEXANDER INGLIS ALL RIGHTS RESERVED tCbe XUberelbe Dresftf CAMliRIDGB . MASSACHUSETTS O . S . A Education Library ' PREFACE IN this book the author has attempted to make a sys- tematic analysis of the factors and principles involved in a constructive theory of secondary education. The theory herein developed is the outgrowth of the writer's experience in secondary-school teaching and administration, together with his experience as a college instructor in the theory and practice of secondary education. The present volume pre- sents the content and method employed in a course of the Principles of Secondary Education at Harvard University. After use in manuscript form for several years, the book is now published in the hope that it may prove of some value to teachers, administrators, and other students of education. Three factors must always determine the form which secondary education should assume: (a) the nature of the pupils to be educated; (6) the character of the social or- ganization and of social ideals; (c) the means and materials available for educational purposes. Accordingly this volume is divided into three parts. Part I is devoted to a consider- ation of the raw material with which secondary education deals, i.e., boys and girls approximately twelve to eighteen years of age. Part II is devoted to a consideration of the secondary school as a social institution — its character, place, and function. Part III is devoted to a consideration of the means and materials wherewith the aims of secondary education can be achieved. Throughout it has been the endeavor of the author to coordinate and correlate the various portions of the book in such a way as to develop a theory of secondary education in which the several ele- ments are organically related and mutually consistent. For 1C86432 vi PREFACE that reason each succeeding chapter or topic must be con- sidered in its relation to the principles formulated or the factors treated in preceding sections. The complex inter- relations of secondary education preclude the adequate con- sideration of any single phase in isolation. In the construction of a book on the principles of second- ary education one of two methods may be employed. A number of specialists may collaborate in the production of a book which consists of several more or less isolated treatises on various separate phases of secondary education. Such a method has many merits, but precludes the develop- ment of a consistently constructive theory. On the other hand, when a single individual attempts to write a book covering a field as broad as that of secondary education, there are always two possible dangers : either the limitations of the individual may lead to superficial treatment and error, or unsupported personal opinion and bias may dominate. The first of these dangers is minimized when the writer refrains from attempting to deal with the details of teach- ing appropriate to the various studies of the secondary- school program and confines this attention to more funda- mental principles. In this book the author deals with special studies only in connection with the broader matters of aims and values, together with the larger elements of method necessarily involved. A later volume in this series will deal with the principles of teaching in the secondary school and several volumes will deal with methods of teaching special subjects or groups of subjects. Bias and personal opinion the author has attempted to minimize in three ways: first, by supporting important statements on disputed points by reference to the opinions of specialists and to the results of impersonal investigation ; secondly, by presenting directly the findings or theories of specialists and limiting his personal judgment to their PREFACE vii evaluation in synthesis; thirdly, by securing the direct criti- cism of specialists and utilizing their judgments in the prep- aration of the book. Practically every chapter of the book has been examined and criticized by two or more specialists in the field treated in that chapter. In this way the author has hoped to safeguard himself and his readers from the errors of purely personal opinion and bias. The mere listing of the names of those men and women who have assisted in the preparation of this volume would take more space than is here available. The author takes this opportunity to express to those persons collectively his deep appreciation of their assistance. Here also he wishes to acknowledge the courtesy of publishers and authors who have permitted the use of quotations for the clearer pres- entation of typical opinions on important points. ALEXANDER INGLIS. CONTENTS PART I. THE PUPILS CHAPTER I. THE SECONDARY-SCHOOL PUPIL: PHYSICAL TRAITS 3 1. Physical traits as basic data. 2. The chronological ages of pupils. 3. The growth of children in height and weight. 4. The growth of organs and parts of the body. 5. Physical de- velopment in relation to health. 6. The physiological phenom- ena of adolescence. 7. Some implications for secondary edu- cation. 8. The distribution of pupils according to puberty. Problems for further consideration — Selected references. CHAPTER II. THE SECONDARY-SCHOOL PUPIL: MENTAL TRAITS 34 9. Secondary education and the development of mental traits.' 10. The development of mental traits with age. 11. Theories of the development of mental traits. 12. The theory of serial de- velopment. 13. The theory of concomitant development. 14. An evaluation of the theories of development. 15. Implications for secondary education. 16. Theories of the influence of adoles- cence. 17. The theory of saltatory development. 18. The theory of gradual development. 19. Evaluation of the two theories. 20. Implications for secondary education. Problems for further consideration — Selected references. CHAPTER III. THE SECONDARY-SCHOOL PUPIL: INDIVID- UAL DIFFERENCES 74 21. Importance of recognizing individual differences. 22. The distribution of individual differences. 23. The interpretation of measures. 24. The causes of individual differences. 25. Com- mon errors in interpreting differences. 26. Individual differences due to biological heredity. 27. Individual differences due to so- cial heredity. 28. Individual differences due to environment. 29. Individual differences in interests, etc. 30. Individual differ- ences due to sex. Problems for further consideration — Selected references. x CONTENTS CHAPTER IV. THE SECONDABY-SCHOOL POPULATION: ITS CHARACTER AND CLASSIFICATION . .118 31. Some illustrative figures. 32. The distribution of pupils by schools. 33. The distribution of pupils by grades. 34. Retarda- tion and acceleration. 35. The elimination of pupils by grades. 36. The elimination of pupils by age. 37. Elimination and home conditions. 38. Elimination, early intention, and early promise. 39. The lure of the out-of-school world. 40. Expectancy of stay in the secondary school. 41.- The classification of secondary- school pupils. 42. Pupils completing the course. 43. The dis- tribution of secondary-school graduates. 44. Pupils destined not to complete the course. Problems for further consideration — Selected references. PART II. THE INSTITUTION AND ITS PURPOSE CHAPTER V. THE DEVELOPMENT OF SECONDARY EDU- CATION IN AMERICA 161 45. Three principal periods of development. 46. The Latin grammar school of England. 47. The beginning of secondary education in America. 48. The Public Latin School of Boston. 49. The Massachusetts Bay Colony law of 1647. 50. Further legal provision in Massachusetts. 51. Legal provision in other colonies. 52. The Latin school in New England and elsewhere. 63. The origin of the academy in America. 54. The Franklin Academy in Philadelphia. 55. The academy in Massachusetts. 56. The academy movement in other states. 57. The control and support of the academy. 58. The curriculum of the academy. 59. Secondary education for girls in the academy. 60. Effect of the academy movement. 61. Secondary education in the early nineteenth century. 62. The English Classical (High) School of Boston. 63. The Girls' High School of Boston. 64. The Massa- chusetts law of 1827. 65. The public high school in Massachusetts. 66. The high-school movement in the United States. 67. The public high school and the academy. 68. State systems of sec- ondary education. Problems for further consideration — Selected references. CHAPTER VI. SECONDARY EDUCATION IN OTHER COUNTRIES 203 69. The comparative study of secondary education. 70. Pur- view of secondary education in other countries. 71. The organi- zation of school systems in Prussia. 72. The place of "higher schools" in Prussian education. 73. Higher schools for boys in CONTENTS xi Prussia. 74. "Reform schools" in Germany. 75. Higher schools for girls in Prussia. 76. Statistics of higher schools in Germany. 77. "Intermediate schools," etc., in Germany. 78. Teachers in Prussian higher schools forboys. 79. Higher schools and the social organization. 80. Secondary education in Germany and America. 81. The system of education in France. 82. Types of "second- ary schools " for boys in France. 83. Other forms of secondary education in France. 84. "Secondary" education of girls in France. 85. Statistics of "secondary" schools in France. 86. The "secondary school " teacher in France. 87. Secondary education and the social organization in France. 88. Secondary education in France and America. 89. Organization of secondary education in England. 90. The "Great Public Schools" of England. 91. Other endowed and private secondary schools. 92. The old municipal "board" secondary schools. 93. "Grant-list" and "efficient" secondary schools. 94. The curricula of English sec- ondary schools. 95. The secondary education of girls in Eng- land. 96. Secondary schools and other departments of education. 97. Secondary schools and the social organization in England. Problems for further consideration — Selected references. CHAPTER VII. SECONDARY EDUCATION IN RELATION TO ELEMENTARY EDUCATION . . . .261 98. Factors involved in making distinctions. 99. Distinctions based on chronological age. 100. Distinctions based on develop- ment. 101. Distinctions based on social factors. 102. Distinc- tions based on studies. 103. The fallacy of sharp distinctions. 104. Historical development. 105. The development of articu- lation in America. 106. Practice in foreign countries. 107. The eight-four system. 108. The age of pupils transferred. 109. The pedagogical age of pupils transferred. 110. Evidences of defects in articulation. 111. Retardation and elimination as evidence. 112. Instruction in later elementary-school grades. 113. Further objections to present conditions. 114. Psychological considera- tions. 115. Social and economic principles involved. 116. Ad- ministrative factors involved. 117. The six-grade course of second- ary education. 118. The junior high-school movement. 119. The purposes of the junior high-school. 120. Difficulties to be met. Problems for further consideration — • Selected references. CHAPTER VIII. SECONDARY EDUCATION IN RELATION TO HIGHER EDUCATION 303 121. Early relations. 122. The Latin grammar school and the college. 123. The early academy and the college. 124. The public xii CONTENTS high school and the college. 125. The rise of public state univer- sities. 126. The secondary school and the normal school. 127. The overlapping of secondary school and college. 128. High-school pupils entering higher institutions. 129? Early requirements and changes. 130. The amount of preparation required. 131. "Pre- scribed," "accepted," and "elective" subjects. 132. The dis- tribution of prescribed units. 133. Recommendations of the Committee on Articulation. 134. Examination and certificating systems. 135. Examination methods in practice. 136. Advan- tages and disadvantages of examinations. 137. The certificating or accrediting system. 138. The advantages and disadvantages of the accrediting system. 139. Methods of administering the accrediting system. ' Problems for further consideration — Selected references. CHAPTER IX. SOCIAL PRINCIPLES DETERMINING SECOND- ARY EDUCATION 340 140. Some underlying assumptions. 141. Secondary educa- tion as a social institution. 142. Social ideals and social organi- zation. 143. Social evolution and educational adjustment. 144. Social integration and differentiation. 145. Changes in other social institutions. 146. Changes in the home and family life. 147. Changes in community life. 148. Changes in the Church and religion. 149. Changes in the vocation. Problems for further consideration — Selected references. CHAPTER X. THE AIMS AND FUNCTIONS OF SECONDARY EDUCATION 367 150. The aims of secondary education: their basis. 151. Three fundamental aims of secondary education. 152. The social- civic aim. 153. The economic-vocational aim. 154. The individ- ualistic-avocational aim. 155. The interrelation of the three aims. 156. Aims based on traits involved. 157. The functions of secondary education. 158. The adjustive or adaptive function. 159. The integrating function. 160. The differentiating func- tion. 161. The propaedeutic function. 162. The selective func- tion. 163. The diagnostic and directive function. Problems for further consideration — Selected references. CONTENTS xiii PART III. THE MEANS AND MATERIALS OF SECONDARY EDUCATION CHAPTER XI. THE PROGRAM OF STUDIES — CRITERIA OF SUBJECT VALUES: ANALYSIS OF THE PROGRAM . 387 164. Subject values determined by aims and functions. 165. Direct values. 166. The transfer of improved efficiency. 167. Is transfer or spread a reality? 168. What is the mode of transfer or spread? 169. Transfer or spread dependent on dis- sociation. 170. Factors which foster and facilitate dissociation. 171. The above principles illustrated. 172. An answer to problem 2. 173. Problem 3: What is the extent of transfer? 174. The results of experimental investigations. 175. Impli- cations of psychological theory. 176. Problem 4: The trans- fer values of studies. 177. The evolution of the program in America. 178. The relative prominence of various subjects. 179. The necessity of selection. Problems for further consideration — Selected references. CHAPTER XII. THE PLACE OF ENGLISH IN THE PROGRAM OF STUDIES 420 180. The historic dominance of linguistic and literary studies. 181. The present status of English in the program. 182. English and the aims of secondary education. 183. The aims of language and of literature distinguished. 184. The relation of language to thought. 185. The aims and values of the study of language. 186. Language as an intellectual instrument. 187. The dominant purposes of language studies. 188. Limitations of the study of the mother tongue. 189. Literature and the social- civic aim of education. 190. Literature and the economic- vocational aim. 191. Literature and the individualistic-avocational aim. 192. Cri- ticism of English study as now organized. Problems for further consideration — Selected references. \s CHAPTER XIII. THE PLACE OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES IN THE PROGRAM OF STUDIES . . 447 193. Historical development in America. 194. Present status. 195. Preliminary analysis of aims and values. 196. Values for social intercourse. 197. Values for commercial purposes. 198. Values for instrumental purposes. 199. Values for social-cultural purposes. 200. Summary and correlation of direct values. 201. Foreign-language study and "general discipline." 202. Val- ues for language-thought relations. 203. The mother tongue and xiv CONTENTS foreign, languages. 204. The relative values of foreign languages. 205. The place of foreign languages. Problems for further consideration — Selected references. CHAPTER XIV. THE PLACE OF MATHEMATICS IN THE PROGRAM OF STUDIES .... 481 206. Historical development of the study of mathematics. 207. Present status of mathematics instruction. 208. Preliminary analysis of aims and values. 209. Mathematics in the affairs of everyday life. 210. Mathematics in various vocations. 211. The propaedeutic values of mathematics. 212. Direct values limited and contingent. 213. Indirect values claimed: number and space concepts. 214. Mathematics and the transfer of improved effi- ciency. 215. Characteristics claimed to favor transfer values. 216. Rugg's experiment. 217. Criticism of mathematics as now organized. 218. The order and position of mathematical studies. Problems for further consideration — • Selected references. CHAPTER XV. THF PLACE OF THE NATURAL SCIENCES IN THE PROGRAM OF STUDIES . . 506 219. Historical development. 220. Present status. 221. Values claimed for the natural sciences. 222. Spencer's fallacies perpetu- ated. 223. Preliminary analysis of the values claimed. 224. Natu- ral science in the affairs of everyday life. 225. Direct values for vocations. 226. Propaedeutic values. 227. Conceptual values claimed. 228. Transfer values claimed. 229. The values and aims of "general science." 230. The aims and values of natural science instruction. Problems for further consideration — • Selected references. CHAPTER XVI. THE PLACE OF SOCIAL SCIENCES IN THE PROGRAM OF STUDIES .... 534 231. Historical position in the program. 232. Present status. 233. Character and ultimate aims. 234. Values of the study of history. 235. Direct social-civic values. 236. Direct vocational values. 237. Direct avocational values. 238. Direct propaedeutic values. 239. Conceptual values claimed. 240. Transfer values claimed. 241. Factors conditioning the values of history. 242. Meaning and scope of civics. 243. The aims and values of civics. 244. The scope and function of "community civics." 245. Eco- nomics as a study in the program. 246. The study of " Problems of American Democracy." 247. Criticism of social studies as now organized. Problems for further consideration — Selected references. CONTENTS xv CHAPTER XVII. THE PLACE OF PRACTICAL AND VOCA- TIONAL ARTS IN THE PROGRAM . . 572 248. Historical position of the practical arts. 249. Present status in the program. 250. Values of the practical and vocational arts. 251. Conditions emphasizing practical and vocational arts. 252. The field of vocational education. 253. Relative importance of various occupations. 254. Principles governing selection. 255. The scope of clerical and commercial education. 256. Aims of clerical and commercial subjects. 257. The place of clerical arts in the program. 258. Analysis of clerical occupations. 259. Non-clerical commercial subjects. 260. "General subjects" modified. 261. Criticism of present commercial education. 262. Meaning and scope of industrial education. 263. Conditions emphasizing industrial education. 264. Values and aims of in- dustrial subjects. 265. Analysis of industrial occupations. 266. Variation in industrial conditions. 267. The selection of in- dustrial subjects. 268. "General subjects" modified. 269. The scope of agricultural education. 270. Factors emphasizing agri- cultural education. 271. Aims and values of agricultural educa- tion. 272. Analysis of agricultural occupations. 273. Variation in agricultural activities. 274. The adaptation of "general" subjects. 275. Scope and field of domestic education. 276. Fac- tors emphasizing domestic education. 277. Females in various occupations. 278. Values of domestic education for girls. Problems for further consideration — Selected references. CHAPTER XVIII. THE PLACE OF ESTHETIC ARTS m THE PROGRAM 621 279. Historical position in the program. 280. Present status. 281. Fundamental principles involved. 282. Values of the aes- thetic arts. 283. ^Esthetic art and literature. 284. Present status of the study of music. 285. The social-civic values of music. 286. Economic-vocational values of music. 287. Individualistic- avocational values of music. 288. Three groups of pupils to be considered. 289. Courses emphasizing musical accomplishment. 290. Courses emphasizing musical appreciation. 291. Courses for other pupils. 292. The field of design and related arts. 293. Two broad divisions of art instruction. 294. Design and related arts as related to industrial arts. 295. Design and related arts as related to commercial arts. 296. Design and related arts as related to domestic arts. Problems for further consideration — Selected references. xvi CONTENTS CHAPTER XIX. PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN THE SECOND- ARY SCHOOL 640 297. Historical development. 298. Present status. 299. The values of physical education. 300. Factors emphasizing physical education. 301. Three general divisions of physical education. 302. Physiology and hygiene: past and present status. 303. Place of physiology and hygiene in the program. 304. Direct import- ance of physiology and hygiene. 305. Sex hygiene and sex pedagogy. 306. Past and present status of physical training. 307. Values and aims of physical training. 308. Gymnastics in the program. 309. Athletics, dancing, and games. 310. Some dangers in such organization. 311. Military training and phys- ical training. Problems for further consideration — Selected references. CHAPTER XX. THE ORGANIZATION OF SECONDARY EDU- CATION: CURRICULUMS 662 312. Historical development of curriculums. 313. Curriculums recommended by the Committee of Ten. 314. Criticism of the committee's recommendations. 315. Suggestions from foreign practice. 316. The aims and functions of secondary education. 317. Principles arising from pupils' development. 318. Principles arising from individual differences. 319. The distribution and classification of pupils. 320. Constant and variable elements. 321. The determination of constants. 322. The determination of variables. 323. Rigid versus flexible curriculums. 324. Con- tinuity and concentration. 325. Required, preferential, and elec- tive subjects. 326. Immediate and deferred values. 327. Prelim- inary explanation of curriculums. 328. Curriculum organization for the junior high school. 329. Curriculum organization of the senior high school. Problems for further consideration — Selected references. CHAPTER XXI. THE ORGANIZATION OF SECONDARY EDUCATION (continued) .... 693 330. The place of the secondary school. 331. Comprehensive versus special-type secondary schools. 332. Organization of vo- cational secondary education. 333. The organization of instruc- tion. 334. The organization of extra- curriculum education. 335. Educational diagnosis and guidance. 336. The social or- ganization of the school. Problems for further consideration — Selected references. INDEX . 723 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION PART I THE PUPILS PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION CHAPTER I THE SECONDARY-SCHOOL PUPIL: PHYSICAL TRAITS i. Physical traits as basic data. All educational theory and practice must be determined primarily by the nature of the individuals to be educated. Reduced to its lowest terms education is the process of producing, directing, and prevent- ing changes in human beings. For the intelligent production, direction, and prevention of such changes a knowledge of the raw material with which education deals is a funda- mental necessity, and hence the first problem of educational theory and practice in any department is concerned with the nature of those to be educated. It is, perhaps, a plati- tude to say that the physical and physiological traits of the individual primarily condition his total nature. As is the case with many general truths, the readiness with which one accepts such a statement sometimes tends to interfere with a full appreciation of its significance and to leave one con- tent with the acceptance of the generalization. The result- ing tendency to minimize the importance of a knowledge of the physical and physiological traits of the educand is furthered by recognition of the fact that such traits are amenable to control through education to a limited degree only and that the demands of modern life emphasize atten- tion to the phenomena of mental traits. Secondary education, as any other department of educa- tion, demands for initial consideration the physical and 4 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION physiological traits of boys and girls, special interest center- ing on those traits and their development in boys and girls of ages approximately twelve to eighteen. Out of the char- acter of those traits and their development arise numerous important problems for secondary education, some of gen- eral and indirect importance, others of very specific and direct bearing. The present chapter, therefore, is concerned with the nature of physical or physiological traits in boys and girls, their development, and their bearing on the the- ory and practice of secondary education. Before approaching the material presented in this chapter the reader should be warned that much remains to be accom- plished in the measurement of physical and physiological traits and that even the best material available is open to severe criticism. In particular one must be careful not to infer too much from averages which can hold true for large groups only and cannot be applied safely to individuals or small groups because of the great variability found. Like- wise one should be on guard against unqualified acceptance of the results of one or a few limited investigations. Finally, one must be aware of the danger of inferring the nature of development "in general," or the nature of the development of all organs and parts of the body, from the nature of the development of one or more specific parts or organs. Two errors have been so common in the measurement of physical and physiological traits that they merit special mention. One of those errors is the practice of attempting to determine norms of development by measuring different groups of children at various ages, instead of measuring the growth of the same children. The second error is that of failing to recognize properly the importance of variability and of overemphasizing the importance of averages in the measurement of any given trait. Recent investigations have tended to avoid these errors. PHYSICAL TRAITS OF THE PUPIL 2. The chronological ages of pupils. Data concerning physical traits and their development are best understood when referred to terms of maturity or "age." Ordinarily maturity or age is expressed in chronological terms — years, months, and days — and "norms" for physical and mental traits are commonly expressed by the layman and educator in such terms. However, chronological age is a very unsatis- factory measure of maturity and is likely to be misleading. The organization of the American school system at present postulates that the age and grade distribution of pupils will conform roughly to the following standard: TABLE I Elementary School Grade: ...1234 5 6 7 8 Age: 6-7 7-8 8-9 9-10 10-11 11-12 12-13 13-14 Secondary School I II III IV 14-15 15-16 16-17 17-18 That the actual situation is far from this age-grade distri- bution may be seen from the following typical example: TABLE II. AGE-GRADE DISTRIBUTION OF PUPILS IN THE PATERSON (N.J.) SCHOOLS, 1912 Age Grades 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 / II /// IV Total 4 39 39 5 712 11 723 6 1239 367 16 1622 7 628 965 364 15 1 1973 8 154 584 943 270 20 1 1972 9 55 219 644 680 280 17 1895 10 23 102 294 602 617 254 5 1897 11 12 13 14 15 16 13 9 5 2 37 22 13 3 137 61 36 8 364 210 93 26 2 502 356 193 60 8 3 518 660 323 124 19 5 172 489 523 234 74 8 28 152 400 366 182 29 2 25 151 47 'i9 ' i 17 $ '16 60 1773 1884 1757 1214 691 364 17 18 1 1 1 10 3 38 10 26 !'j> 44 233 83 19 1 1 4 14 20 20 3 6 9 Over 20 3 3 6 Total 2879 2323 2503 2263 2040 1821 1506 1158 681 411 338 232 18155 <5 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION From such a table as this a number of important facts regarding the chronological age of secondary -school pupils are evident. It is probable that in our schools as at present administered one will not find as many as one half of the pupils in any grade belonging to any single age group. Thus in the above table the largest age group in the eighth grade is the group of thirteen-year-old pupils who form 34.6 per cent of the entire grade group. In the first year of the high school the fourteen-year-old pupils constitute 42.0 per cent of the entire grade group. In the second year of the high school the fifteen-year-old pupils constitute 38.7 per cent of the entire grade group. In the third year of the high school the sixteen-year-old pupils constitute 34.3 per cent of the grade group. In the fourth year of the high school the seventeen-year-old pupils constitute 34.3 per cent of the grade group. Further, it is to be noted that until the factor of selection operates strongly in the later years of the secondary school the proportion of pupils belonging to any age group which is found in any single grade of the school rarely is as great as one-third of the entire age group found in the entire school system. This is seen clearly from the figures presented in Table III. Consideration of such a typical situation as that indicated in the tables given shows clearly that chronological age is a very poor measure of maturity for educational purposes and that the actual existing situation in our educational system does not even approximately conform to the theoretical dis- tribution of age and grade. Hence it is that the term "peda- gogical age" is frequently employed to denote degrees of maturity as measured by the stages of educational progress (school grades) reached. It is obvious, however, that peda- gogical age is a general term designed largely to eliminate the confusion caused by the use of chronological age as a measure of maturity and that it depends for real meaning PHYSICAL TRAITS OF THE PUPIL TABLE HI. PERCENTAGES OF PUPILS OF DIFFERENT AGE GROUPS LOCATED IN VARIOUS GRADES OF THE SCHOOLS OF SlX ClTIES. THE TOTAL NUMBER OF PUPILS CONSIDERED WAS APPROXI- MATELY 35,000* Grades Age in years 12 13 U 15 16 17 1 0.7% 1.9 5.8 11.7 22.1 28.2 21.6 7.0 0.9 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.2% 0.8 2.8 6.7 13.2 21.5 27.5 19.8 6.4 1.0 0.0 0.0 0.2% 0.4 1.5 3.4 7.1 12.2 21.3 28.5 <*% 0.8 0.0 0.2% 0.1 0.6 2.0 3.3 6.6 12.7 19.6 27.5 0.6 0.2% 0.1 0.4 0.6 1.4 1.9 5.8 12.6 20.7 31.0 cdg) 5.9 0.1% 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.3 0.8 1.7 4.6 10.9 26.6 27.9 2.. 3 4 5 6 7 8 I II Ill IV. .. * Inglis, A. J. "A Fundamental Problem in the Reorganization of the High School,'.' School Review, vol. xxin, p. 316. on more fundamental measures of the two underlying and correlated factors, physical and mental maturity. Thus we have at least four measures of maturity: chronological age, pedagogical age, physiological age, and psychological age. By chronological age is meant the number of years and months a boy or girl has lived. By pedagogical age is meant the grade which he has reached in school or the stage of his educational progress. By physiological age is meant the degree of maturity which he has reached as measured by the development of various organs and parts of the body, or of the body as a whole. It is sometimes restricted in its appli- cation to stages of pubescence and adolescence. By psycho- logical or mental age is meant the degree of maturity which the boy or girl has reached as measured by the development of mental traits. That chronological age is by no means 8 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION parallel with pedagogical age has been suggested above. That it is not closely paralleled by physiological age or by psychological age is a matter of everyday observation. A boy sixteen years of age may be less mature physiologically and mentally than another boy twelve years of age. The consideration of physiological age is the special pur- pose of this chapter. The consideration of psychological age, together with problems of the relation between psychological age and other "ages," is the special purpose of Chapter II. 3. The growth of children in height and weight. The phenomena of growth in height and weight are probably the most easily observed and readily measured phenomena affording information concerning the physical growth of children and hence they have received the most attention. Numerous studies afford valuable data regarding the height and weight of children at various chronological ages. For the present purpose we may consider the figures calculated by Boas from data concerning 88,449 American school chil- dren in height and about 68,000 in weight. (Tables IV-V.) From these two tables a number of facts may be deduced: (1) The rate of growth in height and weight as measured by the per cent of annual increase varies at different periods and between the sexes. (2) For boys the rate of growth in height is relatively high (average per year 5.4 per cent) from age 5.5 to age 8.5, is relatively low (average per year 3.25 per cent) from age 8.5 to age 12.5, and is relatively high again (average per year 4 per cent) from age 12.5 to age 16.5 where the limit of average height for adults (about 68 inches) is approached. (3) For boys the rate of growth in weight is relatively high (average per year 9.8 per cent) from age 6.5 to age 8.5, is relatively low (average per year 8.95 per cent) from age 8.5 to age 12.5, and is relatively high again (average per year 12 per cent) from age 12.5 to age 16.5. (4) For girls the rate of growth in height remains relatively constant from PHYSICAL TRAITS OF THE PUPIL 9 TABLE TV. AVERAGE HEIGHT OP 45,151 BOYS AND 43,298 GIRLS IN THE SCHOOLS OF CERTAIN AMERICAN CITIES, WITH MEASURES OF INCREASE AND VARIABILITY* Boys Girls Average age Average annual Average annual in years Average i • 1 1 Mean increase Average L -.'-.Li Mean increase height (inches) Variation (inches) Inches Per cent height (inches) variation (inches) Inches Per cent 5.5 41.7 1.7, 41.3 • . . \ 2.2 5.3 2.0 4.8 6.5 43.9 1.8 [ 43.3 1.9 2.1 4.8 2.4 5.5 7.5 46.0 2.0 45.7 2.0 2.8 6.1 2.0 4.4 8.5 48.8 2.1 { 47.7 2.2 1.2 2.5 [ 2.0 4.2 9.5 50.0 2.2J 49.7 2.2! } 1.9 3.8 i 2.0 4.0 10.5 51.9 2.3 ' 51.7 2.4 } 1.7 3.3 I 2.1 4.1 11.5 53.6 2.4 ( 53.8 2.6 1.8 3.4 } 2.3 4.3 12.5 55.4 2.6 56.1 2.9 } 2.1 3.8 1 2.4 4.3 13.5 57.5 3.0 58.5 2.8 } 2.5 4.3 1.9 3.2 14.5 60.0 3.3 60.4 2.6 I 2.9 4.8 1 1.2 2.0 15.5 62.9 3.4 61.6 2.3 | 1 2.0 3.2 } 0.6 1.0 16.5 64.9 3.0 62.2 2.2 1.6 2.5 0.5 0.8 17.5 66.5 4 2.8 62.7 I " 0.9 1.4 18.5 67.4 ... ' ... » * Burk, F., "Growth of Children in Height and Weight," American Journal of Psychology, vol. ix, p. 262. Figures after Boas, F., Report of the United States Commissioner of Edu- cation (1896-97), vol. ii, pp. 1541-99. Measurements were made on different groups of children for the several ages. age 7.5 to age 13.5 where the average adult limit begins to be approached. (5) For girls the rate of growth in weight is relatively high (average per year 10 per cent) from age 6.5 to age 8.5, is relatively low (average per year 9.5 per cent) from age 8.5 to age 10.5, and is relatively high (average per year 12 per cent) from age 10.5 to age 14.5. (6) Boys excel girls in height from birth up to age about 11.5 and after about 14.5. In weight they excel girls from birth up to 10 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION TABLE V. AVERAGE WEIGHT OF ABOUT 68,000 AMERICAN CHILDREN IN CERTAIN CITIES, WITH THE ANNUAL INCREASES* Boy$ Girls age in years Average for each age (pounds) Absolute annual increase (pounds) Annual increase (per cent) Average for each age (pounds) Absolute annual increase (pounds) Annual increase (per cent) 6.5 45.2 , 43.4 , f 4.3 9.5 4.3 9.9 7.5 49.5 47.7 5.0 10.1 4.8 10.0 8.5 54.5 52.5 5.1 9.3 i c 4.9 9.3 9.5 59.6 ? 57.4 5.8 9.7 5.5 9.6 10.5 65.4 62.9 5.3 8.1 6.6 10.5 11.5 70.7 69.5 6.2 8.7 9.2 13.2 12.5 76.9 78.7 7.9 10.3 10.0 12.7 13.5 84.8 88.7 10.4 12.3 9.6 11.9 14.5 95.2 98.3 12.2 12.8 8.4 8.5 15.5 107.4 106.7 13.6 12.7 .5.6 5.2 16.5 121.0 ' 112.3 3.1 2.8 17.5 115.4 | 18.5 114.9 ' * From Burk, F. (after Boas), op. cit., p. 263. about age 12.5 and after about 15.5. For a period of about three years around the age of puberty and early adolescence girls excel boys in height and weight. They tend to mature earlier. (7) For girls and boys the mean variation in height from age 8.5 on is at every age greater than the amount of the average annual increase. This fact illustrates very clearly the danger of applying general averages to individual PHYSICAL TRAITS OF THE PUPIL 11 cases or to small groups. "Each individual is a law unto himself. A school child may be several inches shorter and many pounds lighter than the average for children of his age, race, and sex, while fully reaching the standard which nature set. for him." l Even when we are dealing with large groups the amount of the variability must be considered just as important as the average. This is shown for height in the following table: TABLE VI. SHOWING THE FREQUENCIES OF HEIGHTS OF AMERICAN BOYS AND GIRLS OF AGES FROM 11.5 TO 16.5 YEARS. FRE- QUENCIES IN PER CENTS OF TOTAL AGE GROUPS* Height in centi- meters Boys : age in years Girls : age in years 11.5 12.5 13.5 14.5 15.5 26.5 11.5 12.5 13.5 14.5 15.5 16.5 109-112 113-116 117-120 121-124 125-H8 129-132 133-136 137-140 141-144 145-148 149-152 153-156 157-160 161-164 165-168 169-172 173-176 177-180 181-184 185-188 0.2 0.2 0.4 2.5 9.1 18.1 25.5 22.3 13.9 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.7 2.7 8.8 18.2 23.3 21.2 0.1 0.3 0.9 2.6 7.6 14.9 20 9 0.6 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.6 2.0 6.1 10 8 0.1 3.1 8.6 0.7 2.1 0.2 0.3 0.2 ... 18.0 6.5 1.2 0.3 0.4 1.1 4.4 0.5 1 i 23.4 20.8 14 3 13.1 19.5 21.7 3.9 10.0 14.3 1.0 2.6 6.1 0.9 2.2 0.2 1 0 5.3 1.9 0.4 0.2 13.6 7.0 3.0 1.1 0.3 19.8 14.9 10.2 4.8 1.8 0.6 0.4 17.1 18.2 17.1 11.9 8.4 3.9 2.3 7.4 13.4 15.4 16.8 14.7 12.9 8.0 1.5 5.1 7.6 13.8 18.9 20.3 19.1 6.8 S.I 0.7 0.3 16.2 11.0 5.8 2.4 0.4 0.2 20.1 21.7 16.0 8.3 3.0 0.6 0.2 12.6 22.6 26.2 16.7 8.1 2.7 0.7 0.2 6.4 18.0 27.4 23.0 14.8 5.7 1.2 0.4 4.6 13.6 23.9 26.5 18.6 8.7 2.6 0.2 0.1 0.7 3.1 7.5 0.3 1.0 3.9 0.1 0.6 0.1 * Adapted from Burk, F. (after Boas), op. cit., pp. 265-66. The figures in this table indicate clearly the danger of relying on averages. This is obvious from the extensive range in height between the smallest boy or girl of any given age and the tallest of the same age (averaging nearly a foot and a half), from the great amount of variation in 1 Terman, L. M., The Hygiene of the School Child, p. 21. 12 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION each age group, and from the great amount of overlapping. In general it may be said that the average height for a boy or girl of any chronological age from 11.5 to 18.5 is equalled or surpassed by the height of more than twenty per cent of the boys or girls a year younger. The variability in height and weight has been made the basis of several investigations designed to discover what relation, if any, exists between physical growth and mental ability. Are children who are heavier and taller than their fellows of the same chronological age more or less mature mentally than the latter, or is there no relation between physical growth (as measured by height and weight) and mental ability? Porter maintained that there is a physical basis for precocity and dullness, with the advantage in favor of those physically more mature. He bases his argument primarily on data collected and compiled by himself for the heights and weights of about 34,500 boys and girls as related to their pedagogical progress. While his figures apply partic- ularly to elementary-school pupils the point which he raises may be made clear through the presentation of data for pupils fourteen to sixteen years of age. (Table VII.) Porter says: "The truth which the [original] table ex- presses is very plain. It declares in unmistakable lines that precocious children are heavier and dull children lighter than the mean child of the same age. It establishes a physical basis of precocity and dullness." Boas calls attention to the fact, however, that the figures show a correlation between mental and physical growth but not necessarily that mental development depends on physical growth. West further notes that two errors are involved in Porter's results because a number of pupils enter school at a late age and are there- fore incorrectly counted as "dull" pupils, and because Porter's results are capable of misinterpretation through his method of reckoning age according to the nearest birthday.1 1 West, G. M., Science, vol. iv, pp. 156-59. PHYSICAL TRAITS OF THE PUPIL 13 TABLE VII. SHOWING THE RELATION OF SCHOOL PROGRESS TO WEIGHT AS INDICATED BY THE DISTRIBUTION OF HEAVY AND LIGHT CHILDREN OF THE SAME AGES IN DIFFERENT GRADES OF THE ST. Louis SCHOOLS* Age at near- ett birthday Mean weight (pounds') Average weight of children in grades Elementary school High School 3 4 5 6 7 S ,. ( Boys 14 { Girls 88.08 03.94 81.00 90.50 84.00 87.17 87.83 92.67 87.20 94.64 93.63 96.15 97.50 99.00 86.50 103.12 ,, (Boys 15 I Girls 100.20 103.20 — 89.00 98.50 95 . 33 100.96 99.17 99.83 105.50 104.00 105.17 104.58 105.08 105.15 i« ) Boys 16 { Girls 114.17 110.00 - — - 114 .50 108.12 104.00 107.38 114.00 110.29 123.00 113.37 * Adapted from Burk, F. (after Porter), op. cit., pp. 296-97. Boas, using data collected by West at Toronto, made a com- parison of the relative brightness of children and their stages of physical development in weight.1 The results which he obtained were diametrically opposed to those found by Porter, though his results cannot be accepted as satisfac- torily obtained because of methods employed in determining the "brightness" of pupils on the basis of teachers' judg- ments. MacDonald,2 using the teachers' estimates of "brightness," and Smedley,3 using age and grade progress as measures, found that "bright" children were taller and heavier than "dull" children. Baldwin4 distinguishes be- tween "precocity" and advanced stages of mental matura- tion, and, basing his conclusions on the school grades and 1 Boas, F., Science, vol. i, pp. 225-30. 2 MacDonald, A., Report of the United States Commissioner of Education (1897-98), vol. i, pp. 989-1204; vol. n, pp. 1281-90. 3 Smedley, F. W., Report of the Department of Child Study of the Public Schools, Chicago, vol. 2, pp. 10-48. 4 Baldwin, B. T., Physical Growth and School Progress, pp. 89-90. 14 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION physical growth measured in the same children at different ages, states that tall children are older physiologically and more mature mentally, though frequently not as bright. Gilbert1 claims a lack of correlation. The conflicting con- clusions reached by the different investigators render the problem complex. However, the consensus of opinion that feeble-minded children are commonly inferior in height and weight could lend support to the theory that there is an important correlation between mental ability and physical growth in height and weight. Terman claims: "For masses, however, the relationship undoubtedly holds."2 Porter's suggestion is not without importance that: "No child whose weight or height is below the average (median or norm) for its age should be permitted to enter a school grade beyond the average of its age except after such a physical examina- tion as shall make it probable that the child's strength is equal to the strain."3 4. The growth of organs and parts of the body. It is some- times thought that the process of growth throughout the body is essentially uniform and that the various organs and parts of the body develop at about the same rates and in about the same proportions at different stages. Such a con- ception is erroneous. Growth is relative in the various organs and parts of the body. Each organ and part has its own rate of development. After initial rapid development in babyhood some organs and parts develop at a fairly con- stant rate until the limits of growth are approached. Others develop rapidly in early childhood and more slowly later. Still others manifest a relatively rapid rate of development in 1 Gilbert, J. A., Researches on School Children and College Students, Studies from the Yale Psychological Laboratory, vol. I, pp. 1-39. 2 Terman, L. M., The Hygiene of the School Child, pp. 27-29. 3 Porter, W. T., The Physical Basis of School Progress, Transactions of the St. Louis Academy of Science, vol. 6, pp. IGl-bl. PHYSICAL TRAITS OF THE PUPIL 15 early childhood, then a period of relatively slow develop- ment, followed again by a relatively rapid rate of develop- ment. The various organs and parts of the body which have been measured carefully in their development manifest widely varying rates of growth.1 Growth in height and weight may be and probably is significant of activity in the growth processes of various organs and parts of the body whose rates of development vary widely from each other and from such total growth as can be measured by height and weight. In the following table are presented figures for growth in vital capacity and in the circumference of the head. TABLE VIII* Vital capacity in cubic centimeters Circumference of the head in millimeters (Smedley) (MacDonald) Age Boys Girls Boys Girls Norm Increase Norm Increase Norm Increase Norm Increase 6 1023 950 513.6 506.2 7 1168 14.2 1061 11.7 519.4 11.10 606.5 0.06 8 1316 12.7 1165 9.1 520.0 0.29 511.6 1.01 9 1469 11.6 1286 10.4 523.5 0.50 615.4 0.74 10 1603 9.1 1409 9.6 526.5 0.57 518.9 0.68 11 173* 8.0 1526 8.3 528.8 0.44 521.7 0.54 12 1883 8.7 1664 9.0 531.9 0.58 527.8 1.17 13 8108 12.0 1827 9.8 633.7 0.34 532.1 0.81 14 2395 13.6 2014 10.2 538.7 0.93 538.0 1.11 15 2697 12.6 2168 7.6 544.8 1.13 540.5 0.46 16 3120 15.7 2266 4.5 550.4 1.03 643.0 0.46 17 3483 11.3 2319 2.3 555.5 0.93 547.4 0.81 18 3655 4.0 2343 1.0 556.5 0.18 548.6 0.22 * Table adapted and increments derived by the writer from data given by Smedley, F. W., Report of the Department of Child-Study, Chicago, vol. 2, pp. 13-14, and from Whipple, G. M. (after MacDonald, A.), Manual of Menial and Physical Testa, Part I, pp. 88-89. Hall claims that the lungs share in the augmented devel- opment of adolescence. Smedley claims that girls increase 1 Cf. Hall, G. S., Adolescence; and Weissenberg, S., Das Wachstum des Menschen naeh Alter. 16 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION most rapidly in vital capacity from 12 to 14, after which the increment is at a diminished rate; that boys take a sudden start upward at 14, and continue a rapid rise until at least 19|; and that boys have a larger vital capacity than girls at all ages. Baldwin and Smedley claim that there is a positive correlation between vital capacity and school standing. Gilbert claims that there is no correlation. It is tempting to take the development of the skull as indicating a possible measurement of the development of the brain and nervous system. Such a theory is in all prob- ability quite untenable, inasmuch as the development of the head in circumference is largely due to the growth of the bones of the skull and the weight of the brain does not in- crease in the same proportion as intelligence. The most appropriate analogy between the development of mental traits and physical traits would naturally be concerned with the development of the nervous system and especially of the brain. It is recognized, however, that the development of mental traits depends not so much on the increase of the brain in mass as measured by size or weight as on the development of neurone cells and their interconnections. On this our present knowledge sheds little light and infer- ences are dangerous. To argue for a parallelism of mental development and physical development by analogy, and then to argue that there is correspondence in the development of the nervous system following from the supposed develop- ment of mental traits, is to argue in a vicious circle. Concern- ing the development of the nervous system Terman's state- ments are here appropriate: Compared to the rest of the body, the central nervous system shows a precocious growth in size and weight. At birth the brain has already attained about one fourth of its final size, and by seven years over ninety per cent. Growth continues much retarded up to about fourteen, and then practically ceases. But here, least of PHYSICAL TRAITS OF THE PUPIL 17 all, does weight give any idea as to maturity. The cells of the brain, although all present in embryonic, granule form for several months preceding birth, only gradually ripen into their fully differentiated structure and put forth their branching network of dendrites. . . . The acquisition of the medullary sheath, which we have above spoken of as the ripening process, proceeds rapidly in the sensory centers and more gradually in the frontal portion, named by Flechsig the "association centers." This includes almost two thirds of the cerebral cortex, which together with the middle sheath of tangential fibers, shows remarkable and important changes in the cellular development of later adolescence, the changes continuing probably as late as forty years.1 Studies of the growth of the bones of the body have em- phasized the variations in the development of parts of the body in two rather noteworthy respects. The researches of Rotch and Pryor indicate that anatomical development, as measured by stages in ossification, is largely independent of chronological age and of development in height or weight, except in the most general way. They further indicate that girls are more advanced than boys at every age with respect to the stage of ossification of the epiphyseal cartilage, though in height, weight, and possibly in vital capacity, such supe- riority on the part of girls is found only as previously indi- cated from about twelve to about fourteen.2 5. Physical development in relation to health. On the whole it appears probable that mortality is lowest and the capacity to resist disease highest at ages about ten to four- teen, or preceding and during the early stages of pu- berty. Accurate figures are difficult to secure and still more difficult to interpret. In 1910-11 for certain registration areas of the United States the uncorrected death rates for various age groups were as indicated in the following table: 1 Terman, L. M., The Hygiene of the School Child, pp. 57-58. 2 Ibid., pp. 62-63. 18 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION TABLE IX. DEATH-RATES PER 1000 POPULATION FOR VARIOUS AGE GROUPS IN 1910-11* 22 slates 60 cities Male Female Both sexes Male Female Both sexes 1- 4 years 12.2 11.3 11.8 15.3 13.9 14.6 5- 9 " 3.2 3.0 3.1 4.0 3.6 3.8 10-14 " 2.3 2.1 2.2 2.9 2.5 2.7 15-19 " 3.8 3.5 3.6 4.5 4.0 4.3 20-24 " 5.4 5.0 5.2 6.6 5.7 6.1 * Compiled by the writer from data given on pp. 16-17 of Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Mortality Statistics (1911). Figures for cities are in terms of the average rates for fifty cities each of 100,000 population or over. Hartwell's figures for death rates in the City of Boston were obtained more than twenty-five years ago. In terms of deaths per thousand for various ages they are indicated in the following table: TABLE X* Age Male Female Age Male Female 4- 5 20.73 21.55 12-13 3.44 4.30 5- 6 14.85 16.44 13-14 4.18 6.17 6- 7 13.40 14.38 14-15 3.98 5.83 7- 8 9.35 9.62 15-16 5.31 5.89 8- 9 6.09 8.11 16-17 6.58 6.57 9-10 7.41 5.11 17-18 6.43 7.94 10-11 4.77 5.23 18-19 10.48 6.32 11-12 4.28 3.23 19-20 10.35 10.48 * Hartwell, E. M., Report on Physical Education in the Boston Public Schools. Such figures as those presented in these two tables must be interpreted with great caution. The removal at early ages of those who are more susceptible to illness and death constantly makes each successive group more select in PHYSICAL TRAITS OF THE PUPIL 19 bealth so that the decrease in the death-rate from childhood to puberty may in no direct way be related to development with age. It is to be noted also that preventive medicine and improved hygiene tend to decrease the death-rate at early ages and tend to increase it at later ages. In this con- nection it may be mentioned that Hartwell found that the age of the minimum death-rate was the thirteenth year in 1875, the fourteenth year in 1885, and the fifteenth year in 1890. It is frequently stated that the period of puberty and early adolescence is characterized by low mortality rates and a high resistance to diseases of a serious character, but by a susceptibility to minor illnesses. The evidence in all cases is by no means clear. Neither is it clear that a low rate of mortality, if it is found for puberty, is necessarily related to the phenomena of development. On the whole Terman's statements concerning investigations in this field are appro- priate.1 Investigations on this point are somewhat contradictory, but indicate on the whole that, although the mortality rate is lowest when the adolescent acceleration is greatest, morbid conditions of both mind and body are at that time most frequent. This is particularly true of girls. It is necessary, however, to discriminate diseases and to determine the curve of liability of each. To lump together diseases and complaints of every kind and to enumerate them as so many "illnesses" or "defects" is of doubtful value, at best, and may be misleading. Many more and much more accurate investigations are necessary before we may, with any certainty, determine the relation of health to maturity or the phenomena of develop- ment. 6. The physiological phenomena of adolescence. "Ado- lescence" (from the Latin adolescere — to grow up, to ma- 1 Terman, L. M., The Hygiene of the Scliool Child, p. 26. 20 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION tare) is the term applied to that stage of development of boys and girls between the approximate ages of twelve and twenty, when the procreative powers are developing. "Puberty" is the term applied to the initial stage of physio- logical development at adolescence.1 From its beginning secondary education has been closely associated with the period of puberty and adolescence and in many ways its character has frequently been determined, directly or indi- rectly, by the physiological phenomena connected with that period of development. Thus among primitive peoples what formal education existed was related to the initiatory rites and ceremonies which took place at puberty or during adolescence. Among the Greeks the very terms employed to characterize certain forms or stages of education indi- cated the connection between education and puberty.2 At the present time the period of secondary education either coincides with or is included in the period of puberty or early adolescence so that any fruitful analysis of physical or physiological development and of secondary education requires careful study of the phenomena of adolescence. Such an analysis is of great importance for the proper under- standing and treatment of adolescent boys and girls in direct connection with the physical and physiological traits them- selves. It becomes increasingly important in view of the correlation sometimes claimed between physiological and mental traits and in view of certain indirect effects of physi- cal or physiological traits on mental traits through the determination of subjective attitudes. If puberty began for all children or even for all boys or all girls at approximately the same chronological age, problems 1 In its strict sense puberty has reference to the growth of hair on the body. 2 Eirenic and ephebic from etpyv and I0e£oj = having attained the age of puberty, from M = at and ?j/3i? = puberty, the state of being marriageable. PHYSICAL TRAITS OF THE PUPIL arising out of the phenomena of adolescence would be much less complicated than they are. The date of the onset of puberty varies both for boys and for girls. It varies accord- ing to race, according to climate, and according to many other conditions. Hence, from the mere fact of chronological age one cannot predicate that a child is immature, maturing, or already mature. This appears clearly from the results obtained by Crampton who measured 3825 boys in the high schools of New York City and classified them in three groups of the prepubescent (immature), pubescent (maturing), and postpubescent (mature). TABLE XI. DISTRIBUTION OF BOYS BY CHRONOLOGICAL AGE AND BY PHYSIOLOGICAL AGE AS MEASURED BY STAGES OP PUBESCENCE * Mean age in years Prepubescent (immature) Pubescent (maturing) Postpubescent (mature) 12.25 (8D% (16)% (*)% 12.75 69 25 6 13.25 55 26 18 13.75 41 28 31 14.25 26 28 46 14.75 16 24 60 15.25 9 20 70 15.75 5 10 85 16.25 2 4 93 16.75 1 4 95 17.25 0 2 98 17.75 0 0 100 * Crampton, C. W., "Physiological Age — A Fundamental Principle," American Physical Education Review, vol. xm, p. 150. The change from prepubescence to pubescence is most noticeable from age 13.75 to age 14.25. The other ages immediately preceding . this, however, are also popular, and the average date is much earlier than the mean date. For the ending of prepubescence and the beginning of pubescence 22 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION the middle of the mean year is 14.00 years, the average date is 13.44 years with a variability (mean square deviation) of 1.51 years.1 This means that it requires a range of about three years to include approximately two thirds of the cases. The full significance of this variability is noted by Crampton: If the immature differed from the mature in no other way than this particular sign, it would hardly be worth while to segregate these groups. The classification shows, however, that there is a striking physical change in the progress from immaturity to matur- ity. At characteristic ages, the mature are more than 33 per cent heavier, 10 per cent taller, and 33 per cent stronger than the immature. To substantiate this statement he presents among others the following figures: TABLE XII * Average weight in Average height in Average strength of Age in kilograms centimeters grip in kilograms years Prepu- bescent Pubes- cent Postpu- bescent Prepu- bescent Pubes- cent Postpu- bescent Prepu- bescent Pubes- cent Postpu- bescent 12.75 25.2 36.6 (50.8) 144.0 147.5 150.5 26.6 28.2 (32.5) 13.25 35.0 37.2 44.3 144.2 148.7 153.9 26.3 28.1 33.6 13.75 35.4 37.9 43.8 145.7 150.4 155.9 27.6 30.4 85.2 14.25 35.2 38.6 45.4 146.6 150.6 157.9 27.3 30.2 37.8 14.75 36.8 39.0 47.2 147.3 151.7 158.9 29.4 30.8 38.3 15.25 37.9 38.8 47.7 149.8 151.5 160.7 29.6 31.1 40.1 15.75 36.7 41.8 49.3 149.8 153.1 162.6 32.5 30.4 42.9 16.25 (40.0) 38.3 51.6 151.0 152.4 164.6 31.7 29.6 43.8 16.75 (42.5) (41.5) 53.5 (153.0) (151.4) 165.4 (27.5) 33.2 48.3 * Crampton, C. W., "The Influence of Physiological Age on Scholarship," The Psycho- logical Clinic, vol. i, pp. 117-18. The correlation between stages of puberty and such physi- cal traits as height and weight is indicated by these data. The correlation between physical development in height and 1 Crampton, C. W., op. cit., p. 146. PHYSICAL TRAITS OF THE PUPIL 23 weight and mental ability or school progress was considered in a preceding section. Crampton maintains: Greater height, weight, and strength are related to better scholar- ship because they are all effects of the same cause, — earlier pubescence. ... It is possible that if this factor were to be elimi- nated there would appear a minus instead of a plus relation between scholarship and weight.1 These statements he bases on the results obtained by com- paring the average status in physical traits of boys of the same chronological age and the same physiological age groups which differed only in pedagogical age by one high- school term, and by observing the rate of success and fail- ure of boys of each chronological age and physiological age group. Employing the latter method he found that postpu- bescents were more successful, eighteen per cent failing to pass into the next form as against twenty -seven per cent of failure for the prepubescents at thirteen years of age. At the age of fourteen the per cents of failure were twenty-four and thirty-four respectively; at fifteen they were twenty-nine and thirty-six. As a result he maintains that earlier pubes- cence favors good scholarship and later pubescence poorer scholarship. Variability also characterizes the date of the appearance and development of pubescence among girls. This is shown in Table XIII. From these figures the following conclusions may be drawn: (1) the date of the onset of puberty is highly variable for girls; (2) girls of the same chronological age differ widely with respect to their stages of physiological maturity as measured by puberty; (3) less than five per cent of girls are still prepubescent at the age of fifteen; (4) pubescence begins for girls earlier than for boys. 7. Some implications for secondary education. As a result 1 Crampton, C. W., op. cit., pp. 118-19. 24 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION TABLE XIII. DISTRIBUTION OF 1241 GIRLS BY CHRONOLOGICAL AGE AND STAGES OF PUBERTY* Mean age in years Prepubescent (immature) Pubescent (maturing) Postpubescent (mature) 10.0 100.00% 0.00% 0.00% 10.5 93.75 6.25 0.00 11.0 100.00 0.00 0.00 11.5 78.84 19.23 1.92 12.0 62.06 37.93 0.00 12.5 58.20 23.88 17.91 13.0 39.53 34.88 25.58 13.5 15.15 37.87 46.96 14.0 15.38 38.46 46.15 14.5 4.83 17.74 77.42 15.0 0.00 14.54 JB5.45 15.5 1.55 7.81 90.62 16.0 2.04 6.12 91.83 16.5 0.00 3.17 96.83 17.0 0.00 0.00 100.00 * Baldwin, B. T., "A Measuring Scale for Physical Growth and Physiological Age," Fifteenth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, part I, chap, i, p. 17. The relatively small number of cases examined precludes any exact interpretation and explains some minor fluctuations. The general tendency is, however, obvious. of his study of physiological age in connection with high- school pupils Crampton recommends: Where mature and immature children are now brought together in the same class in the elementary or high school, they should be separated into different classes, so that the pedagogical, ethical and social treatment to which they are subjected may be better adapted to their disparate and distinct requirements and abilities.1 An experiment carried on in a New York City high school more or less sustained Crampton's thesis. Foster, giving the results of that experiment, presents the following figures: 1 Crampton, C. W., " Anatomical or Physiological Age: versus Chron- ological Age," Pedagogical Seminary, vol. xv, p. 236. PHYSICAL TRAITS OF THE PUPIL TABLE XIV * Registered number Discharges (per cent) Failures (per cent) Promotions (per cent) Eight classes arranged by physiological age . -. Four classes not arranged by physiological age . . Previous class not ar- ranged by physiological age. . 295 149 818 20 .31 27 19 17 17 61 52 56 _* Foster, W. L., "Physiological Age as a Basis for the Classification of Pupils entering High Schools," Psychological Clinic, vol. iv, p. 86. From these and other results Foster drew the following conclusions: (1) It is more agreeable for boys of the same development to associate with one another. (2) A classification of high school stu- dents according to physiological age, based on pubescence, is easy and practical. (3) By an experiment in a New York City high school it was shown that the efficiency of the students was increased by such a classification. The percentage of discharges was very materially decreased (from 7 per cent to 11 per cent decrease). (4) This increased efficiency is due to pleasanter associations with students of the same development. (5) There exists a very close relationship between pubescence and height. (6) In schools where physical examination is impossible, a classification according to height would probably produce almost the same results.1 Such statements are dangerous when made on the basis of such limited investigations as those of Foster. The classification suggested by Crampton and by Foster, however promising it may appear when considered apart from the exigencies of school administration, presents cer- tain difficulties when considered in relation to the ordinary demands of administration in the secondary school. Any 1 Foster, VV. L., op. tit., p. 88. 26 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION scheme of classification which increases the homogeneity of the groups to be taught in one direction without decreasing it in another may be considered a priori as a means of im- proving teaching and increasing the measure of success. Hence it is to be expected that where conditions permit the division of pupils in a given grade into groups roughly homo- geneous with respect to the stages of physiological develop- ment (or any other important factor), better results may be looked for. In a large secondary school such a classification is frequently possible. In a small school, or even one of average size, such a subdivision of classes is impossible. Of the 11,674 public high schools in the United States in 1914- 15 less than one tenth (990) were in cities of 8000 population or over and 10,684 were in communities of less than 8000 population each. In smaller communities the "average" high school has 62 pupils. The "average" high school for the country at large has about 114 pupils, distributed some- what as follows: 47 (41 per cent) in the, first-year class, 30 (27 per cent) in the second-year class, 21 (19 per cent) in the third-year class, and 16 (14 per cent) in the fourth-year class.' It is obvious that in the great majority of public secondary schools it is impracticable to subdivide classes for the purpose of segregating boys or girls or both according to degrees of pubescence. Far more practicable and far more justifiable is the sug- gestion of Baldwin: ] Therefore, the obvious educational corollary is that our school systems, public and private, should take into careful consideration the physiological age and the accompanying stages of mental maturity of boys and girls, rather than the chronological age and brightness, as is now done. This would require that tall, healthy children of accelerated development be encouraged to proceed through school 1 Baldwin, B. T., " A Measuring Scale for Physical Growth and Physio- logical Age," Fifteenth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Edu- cation, part i, pp. 15-17. PHYSICAL TRAITS OF THE PUPIL 27 as rapidly as possible within the limits of thoroughness, and that small, light children of retarded physiological development be kept below or in the normal grade, doing supplementary work, since these short, light 'pupils are immature in mental development, although in many cases precocious in degree of brightness. Incomplete though our knowledge o" physiological age is, it is sufficient to put us on guard against the practice of ignoring it as a factor of importance in school organization and administration. In a later section attention will be called to the fact that the practice of determining promo- tion by pedagogical age alone should be supplemented by recognition of physiological age, psychological age, chrono- logical age, and social age. 8. The distribution of pupils according to puberty. Some conception of the complexity of problems involved in at- tempts to adjust education to stages of maturity according to puberty may be gained from an analysis of the pupil pop- ulation of a school system. In Tables XV-XVIII an esti- mate is made of such a distribution of pupils in the schools of Paterson New Jersey, in 1913. From these figures, and from more extended tables on which those given are based, a number of facts may be deduced: (1) Prepubescent, pubescent, and postpubescent children were found in almost every grade of the school system, the proportion of prepubescents gradually decreasing and the proportion of postpubescents gradually increasing. (2) Particularly noteworthy is the fact that the ratio of prepubescent boys to postpubescent boys is almost exactly inverted from 56/22 in the seventh grade to 22/58 in the ninth grade, while a similar ratio for girls is approximately inverted from 58/21 in the sixth grade to 18/57 in the eighth grade. Herein are observable : (a) the earlier pubescence of girls; (6) the transitional character of grades 6/7 to I. 28 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION TABLE XV. PERCENTAGES OF PREPUBESCENT, PUBESCENT, AND POSTPUBESCENT PUPILS IN VARIOUS GRADES OF THE PATERSON (N.J.) SCHOOLS IN NOVEMBER, 1913 * Boys Girls Both •e e a •n? o H •e g n i e~ a S "§ g e~ 11 I e 5* •** 1 u J 1 J 1 JS, ^J 05 11 °e s J 1 1 J J I 1 •S s s"a II J 3 g, 1 1 1 g, 1 ft, 3 1"! <5 * a, * a, «H a, a, ft. a, a, I a, a, a, £ i 100 0 0 100 0 100 0 0 100 0 100 0 0 100 0 2 99 i 0 100 1 99 i 0 100 1 99 1 0 100 1 3 97 2 1 99 3 96 3 1 99 4 97 2 1 99 3 4 92 5 3 97 8 89 7 4 96 11 90 6 4 96 10 B 81 11 8 92 19 74 15 11 89 26 78 13 9 91 22 6 69 17 14 86 31 58 21 21 79 42 64 19 17 83 36 1 56 22 22 78 44 36 26 38 62 64 46 24 30 60 54 8 35 22 43 57 65 18 25 57 43 82 26 14 60 40 74 I 22 20 58 44 78 10 19 71 29 90 17 20 63 37 83 11 12 15 73 27 88 3 10 87 13 97 8 12 80 20 92 III 2 8 89 11 97 1 4 96 5 100 2 5 93 7 98 IV 1 3 96 4 99 0 1 99 1 100 0 2 98 2 100 TABLE XVI. DISTRIBUTION ACCORDING TO CERTAIN IMPORTANT DIVISIONS — NUMBERS Grades Boys Girls Both Pre- pubes- cent Pubes- cent Post- pubes- cent Pre- pubes- cent Pubes- cent Post pubes- cent Pre- pubes- cent Pubes- cent Post- pubes- cent 1-8 I-IV.... 1-IV.... l-« 7-1 II-IV. . . 7053 121 665 125 688 629 6267 42 828 96 1020 743 13320 163 1593 121 1708 1372 7174 790 1317 6309 924 1763 13483 1714 3080 6404 73B 32 363 381 46 254 665 398 5886 415 8 470 325 29 366 899 498 12290 1153 M 833 706 75 620 1564 896 PHYSICAL TRAITS OF THE PUPIL 29 TABLE XVII. DISTRIBUTION ACCORDING TO CERTAIN IMPORTANT DIVISIONS — PER CENTS Grades Boys Girls Both Pre- pubes- cent Pubes- cent Post- pubes- cent Pre- pubes- cent Pubes- cent Post- pubes- cent Pre- pubes- cent Pubes- cent Post- pubes- cent 1-8 . . I-IV.... 1-IV.... 1-6... 7-1 II-IV... 98.3 1.7 84.1 15.9 52.3 4Y.7 99.4 0.6 89.6 10.4 57.8 42.2 98.9 1.1 86.9 13.1 55.4 44.6 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 89.4 10.1 0.5 45.9 48.2 5.9 19.1 50.7 30.2 93.4 6.5 0.1 50.9 45.9 3.2 20.7 51.0 28.3 91.2 8.6 0.2 48.8 46.6 4.6 20.1 50.8 29.1 Explanation: Of prepubescent boys in the schools 98.3 per cent were in grades 1-8 and 1.7 per cent were in grades I-IV, etc. TABLE XVIII. DISTRIBUTION ACCORDING TO STAGE OF PUBERTY IN VARIOUS DIVISIONS — PER CENTS Boys Girls Both Grades Pre- pubes- cent Pubes- cent Post- pubes- cent Pre- pubes- cent Pubes- cent Post- pubes- cent Pre- pubes- cent Pubes- cent Post- pubes- cent 1-8.. I-IV. 83.9 13.8 7.9 14.3 8.2 71.9 77.2 4.8 10.2 10.9 12.6 84.3 80.1 9.3 9.6 12.6 10.3 78.1 1-6.. 7-1.. II-IV 91.2 41.4 6.7 5.2 21.3 9.7 3.6 37.3 83.6 87.5 25.3 1.5 7.0 19.8 5.4 5.5 54.9 93.1 89.4 33.7 4.0 6.1 20.6 7.4 4.5 45.7 88.6 Explanation: Of all boys in grades 1-8 (elementary school) 83.9 per cent were prepu- :scent, 7.9 per cent were pubescent, and 8.2 per cent were postpubescent, etc. besce (3) Of all the immature (prepubescent) boys and girls in the public schools of Paterson in 1913 all but about one per cent were in the elementary school (grades 1-8). (4) Of all the maturing (pubescent) boys more than five sixths were in the elementary school: of all the pubescent 30 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION girls nearly^ nine tenths were in the elementary school : of all pubescent pupils (boys and girls together) more than six sevenths were in the elementary school. The largest per^ centage of pubescent pupils (about 21 per cent) was found in the seventh grade. About six per cent of pubescent boys, about three per cent of pubescent girls, and about five per cent of pubescent pupils were found in grades II, III, IV of the high school. Other pubescent pupils were about equally divided between the division comprising grades 1-6 and the division comprising grades 7-1, More pubescent boys were in the sixth grade than in the entire high school, more pubes- cent girls in the fifth grade than in the entire high school, and more pubescent pupils in the fifth grade than in the entire high school. (5) Of all the mature boys (postpubescents) in the schools more than one half were in the elementary school (grades 1-8) . Of all the mature girls more than one half were in the elementary school. Of all mature pupils more than one half were in the elementary school and less than one half in the high school. More than one half of the postpubescent pupils of either sex were in grades 7, 6, 1. Less than one third of all postpubescent pupils were in grades II, III, IV, of the high school. The largest number of postpubescent pupils was in the eighth grade. Two thirds as many postpubescent pupils were in grades 1-6 as in grades II-IV. There were more post- pubescent girls in the sixth grade than in any grade of the high school except grade I. (6) Of all boys in grades 1-8 of the elementary school 84 per cent were prepubescent, 8 per cent were pubescent, and 8 per cent postpubescent; of all the girls 77 per cent were prepubescent, 10 per cent pubescent, and 13 per cent post- pubescent; of all pupils in the elementary school (grades 1-8) 80 per cent were prepubescent, 10 per cent pubescent, and 10 per cent postpubescent. PHYSICAL TRAITS OF THE PUPIL 31 (7) Of all boys in the high school (grades I-IV) 14 per cent were prepubescent, 14 per cent pubescent, and 72 per cent postpubescent; of all the girls 5 per cent were pre- pubescent, 11 per cent pubescent, and 84 per cent post- pubescent; of all pupils in the high school 9 per cent were prepubescent, 13 per cent pubescent, and 78 per cent post- pubescent. (8) Of all boys in grades 1-6 of the elementary school 91 per cent were prepubescent, 5 per cent pubescent, and 4 per cent postpubescent; of all the girls in those grades 88 per cent were prepubescent, 7 per cent pubescent, and 5 per cent postpubescent; of all pupils in those grades 89 per cent were prepubescent, 6 per cent pubescent, and 5 per cent postpubescent. (9) Of all boys in grades 7, 8, I (last two grades of the elementary school and first grade of the high school) 41 per cent were prepubescent, 21 per cent pubescent, and 37 per cent postpubescent; of all the girls in those grades 25 per cent were prepubescent, 20 per cent pubescent, and 55 per cent postpubescent; of all pupils in those grades 34 per cent were prepubescent, 20 per cent pubescent, and 46 per cent postpubescent. (10) Of all boys in grades II-IV (high school II, III, IV) 7 per cent were prepubescent, 10 per cent pubescent, and 84 per cent postpubescent; of all girls in those grades 2 per cent were prepubescent, 5 per cent pubescent, and 93 per cent postpubescent; of all pupils in those grades 4 per cent were prepubescent, 7 per cent pubescent, and 89 per cent postpubescent. While these figures can apply with exactness to one city only, it is quite probable that they would hold true approxi- mately for the majority of school systems. A number of city school systems examined in the same way indicate similar conditions. Certainly it is true that no simple means can be 32 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION found to relate the organization of the school system to the complexities found in the phenomena of puberty. PROBLEMS FOR FURTHER CONSIDERATION 1. How do differences between boys and girls in the rates of physical development affect the problem of coeducation? 2. What administrative problems would be affected by the classification of pupils according to physiological age? How would they be affected? 3. What organs and parts of the body show increased rates of development at adolescence? Which do not? Can any one age be set to cover all cases? (Cf. Hall, G. S., Adolescence, vol. i.) 4. Show how growth in height or weight may affect mental traits by caus- ing changes in environmental (social) conditions. 5. Compare any two boys or any two girls of approximately the same age (e.g., between 14.0 and 15.0) and note all the differences in phys- ical traits you can. Do any of the observed differences cause differ- ences in the treatment of them by other people? 6. Reduce the age-grade distribution table of any secondary school to terms of per cents and note the variability. 7. Arrange about one hundred boys or girls of any secondary school grade in the order of their scholastic records (marks) : arrange them in the order of their ages: arrange them in the order of their heights or weights. How do the three arrangements compare? 8. Apply the tables of Crampton (Table XI) and of Baldwin (Table XIII) to the age-grade distribution of any school system. Compare with the tables given for Paterson. (Cf. Tables XV-XVIII.) 9. Compare boys of the same chronological age (reckoned within a six- months range) but in different school grades, as to their physical devel- opment (height, weight, etc.) . Do the same for girls. 10. Compare the boys who leave school during the first year of the second- ary school with those who remain, as to height, weight, etc. SELECTED REFERENCES Baldwin, B. T., Physical Growth and School Progress, Bureau of Education, Bulletin (1914), no. 10. Bibliography of 336 titles. Baldwin, B. T., "A Measuring Scale for Physical Growth and Physio- logical Age," Fifteenth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, part i, pp. 11-22. Baldwin, B. T., "The Normal Child: Its Physical Growth and Mental Development," Popular Science Monthly, vol. LXXXV, pp. 559 ff. Boas, F., " On Dr. William Townsend Porter's Investigation of the Growth of School Children of St. Louis," Science, vol. i, pp. 225-30. PHYSICAL TRAITS OF THE PUPIL 33 Boas, F., "Growth of School Children," Science, vol. xx, pp. 351-52. Boas, F., "Growth of American Children," Report of the United States Commissioner of Education (1896-97), vol. n, pp. 1541-59. • Burk, F., " Growth of Children, in Height and Weight," American Journal of Psychology, vol. rx, pp. 253-326. Bibliography. Burnham, W. H., "The Study of Adolescence," Pedagogical Seminary, vol. i, pp. 174-95. Crampton, C. W., " Physiological Age — A Fundamental Principle," American Physical Education Review, vol. xm, pp. 141-54, 214-27, 268- 83, 345-58. Crampton, C. W., " Anatomical or Physiological Age versus Chronological Age," Pedagogical Seminary, vol. xv, pp. 230-37. Crampton, C. W., "The Influence of Physiological Age on Scholarship," Psychological Clinic, vol. i, pp. 115-20. De Busk, B. W., " The Vital Index in Development," Pedagogical Seminary, vol. xxiv, pp. 1-18. Foster, W. L., " Physiological Age as a Basis for the Classification of Pupils Entering High Schools — Relation of Pubescence to Height," Psycho- logical Clinic, vol. iv, pp. 83-88. Gilbert, J. A., "Researches on the Mental and Physical Development of School Children," Studies from the Yale Psychological Laboratory, vol. n, pp. 40-100. Hall, G. S., Adolescence. Hartwell, E. M., "Reports on Physical Training in the Boston Public Schools," Boston School Committee Report, 1894-95, pp. 181-200. King, I., The High School Age, especially chapter n. King, I., " Physiological Age and School Standing," Psychological Clinic, vol. vi, pp. 222-29. McDonald, A., " Experimental Study of Children," Report of the United States Commissioner of Education (1897-98), vol. i, pp. 985-1204. Porter, W. T., " Growth of School Children," Report of the Academy of Sci- ence of St. Louis, vol. vi, pp. 263-380. Porter, W. T., "The Physical Basis of Precocity and Dullness," Transac- tions of the Academy of Science of St. Louis, vol. vi, pp. 161-8-1. Smedley, F. W., Report of the Development of Child Study and Pedagogic Investigation of the Chicago Public Schools, vol. 11, pp. 10-48. Stewart, S. F., " A Study of Physical Growth and School Standing of Boys," Journal of Educational Psychology, vol. vn, pp. 414-26. Terman, L. M., The Hygiene of the School Child, pp. 13-71. West, G. M., " Observation of the Relation of Physical Development to the Intellectual Ability Made on the School Children of Toronto, Can- ada," Science, vol. iv, pp. 156-59. CHAPTER II THE SECONDARY-SCHOOL PUPIL: MENTAL TRAITS 9. Secondary education and the development of mental traits. While education is fundamentally and primarily conditioned by physical traits of the pupils, secondary edu- cation is more directly and immediately concerned for the most part with mental traits. Predominantly it is a process of producing, directing, or preventing changes in the neurone connections which control and determine mental traits. It follows, therefore, that the greater is our knowledge of men- tal traits and the nature of their development, the more intelligently and efficiently can the process of education be conducted. As was suggested in the previous chapter our knowledge of physical traits and the nature of their develop- ment is very inadequate. Even less adequate and reliable is our knowledge of mental traits. Indeed, it may be said that no single psychological trait has ever been adequately measured and that .the most painstaking investigations have failed to afford evidence which is entirely satisfactory. Nevertheless such evidence as we have suggests certain general tendencies which it is our duty to recognize until further investigation either confirms or invalidates. An analysis of all the mental traits involved in secondary edu- cation lies far beyond the scope of this book and in fact far beyond the bounds of available knowledge. All that can be attempted here is a brief consideration of a few fundamental traits and of certain problems of great importance for secondary education. The chapter will deal: (I) with the development of mental traits with age; (II) with the order MENTAL TRAITS OF THE PUPIL 35 of the development of mental traits; (III) with the relation of adolescence to the development of mental traits. As in the consideration of the development of physical traits in the preceding chapter the reader should be warned against certain misconceptions and misinterpretations. He should be warned that the statistical data presented must be considered as indicative of general tendencies rather than as exact and conclusive evidence as to details. He should remember that mental traits are highly susceptible to the influence of training and hence that in every case such measurements as those presented indicate the status of a mental trait due both to inner growth determined by nature and to training through exercise, so that it is impossible to separate the two fg.ot.nrs of natnrft p.nd nurture and the status indicated represents an actual but not a necessary condi- tion. Finally it must be remembered that where statistical data are presented one must always keep in mind the dan- gers of drawing conclusions from a relatively small number of cases or of interpreting as normal a status determined from the measurement of a select group. I. THE DEVELOPMENT OF MENTAL TRAITS WITH AGE 10. The development of mental traits with age. It is an extremely difficult task to determine the status of any men- tal trait at any given age in such a way as to measure the effect of maturity or inborn tendencies alone, and eliminate the measurement of the influence of training or the environ- ment. Commonly the status of any mental trait at any i time represents the combined effect of inborn tendencies! and of training so that it is practically impossible to iso- late the effect of either influence. For that reason it is best to consider first the character of the development of mental traits which are, perhaps, likely to be affected least by spe- 36 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION cial training. For this purpose we may consider the results of Gilbert's measurement of children of different ages with respect to their capacity to discriminate differences in weight and their capacity to react to a given sensory stimulus. TABLE XIX. NUMBER OF GRAMS DIFFERENCE REQUIRED IN ORDER THAT THE MEDIAN CHILD SHOULD BE ABLE TO PERCEIVE THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN WEIGHTS. DECREASE IN THE AMOUNTS OF DIFFERENCE NECESSARY DENOTES INCREASE IN ABILITY.* Age in years 6 7 8 9 10 11 n IS 14 15 16 17 Grams: Boys 13.0 13.2 12.2 10.2 8.6 10.2 7.6 6.0 5.2 6.2 6.0 6.0 Girls 16.8 13.2 11.0 10.0 9.2 7.6 7.6 5.6 7.2 7.2 6.8 (i.4 Both 14.8 13.6 11.4 10.0 8.8 8.6 7.2 5.4 5.6 6.8 6.6 5.8 TABLE XX. NUMBER OF THOUSANDTHS OF A SECOND BETWEEN THE MOVEMENT OF A DISK AND THE MAKING OF A CONTACT BY A CHILD WHO WAS INSTRUCTED TO PRESS DOWN A KEY AS SOON AS HE -SAW THE DlSK MOVE: MEDIAN TlME. DECREASE IN THE RECORD INDICATES INCREASE IN ABILITY.* Age in years 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 n 15 16 17 Time: Bovs 282 267 245 243 210 185 178 178 180 167 147 147 Girls 295 315 260 2.55 225 20« 198 205 187 189 172 103 Both 295 292 262 250 215 195 187 187 180 172 155 155 * Gilbert, J. A., Researches on the Mental and Physical Development of School Children, Studies from the Yale Psychological Laboratory, vol. n, pp. 40-100; reproduced by Thorn- dike, E. L., Educational Psychology, vol. in, pp. 273-74. Those not familiar with the term median may without serious error interpret it as a measure of the central tendency some- what similar to the average. The general tendency of the abilities measured to increase with age is obvious. Apparently ability in speed of reaction increases constantly from the age of six to the age of seven- teen, and possibly later. Ability to discriminate differences MENTAL TRAITS OF THE PUPIL 37 in weight increases continuously until the age of thirteen or fourteen, where the apparent limit of improvement with- out special practice is approached. Again the reader should be warned that the character of the data does not warrant more than the most general conclusions and limits interpre- tation except with regard to general tendencies — possibly even there. The particular facts to be noted from such tables are that, in so far as the data are reliable, they indicate that the traits measured tend to increase with age as the result of inner growth and a certain amount of training, and that differences in the rate of development and in the duration of the process of development vary with different mental traits until the limits of capacity are approached. More complex and more susceptible to the influences of practice and training are the mental traits involved in asso- ciation and substitution. The results of certain investiga- tions designed to measure abilities in those traits are pre- sented in the following table: TABLE XXI. THE DEVELOPMENT OF CAPACITY IN ASSOCIATION AND SUBSTITUTION (PYLE)* Age in years 8 9 10 11 12 13 lit 15 16 17 18 a. Part-whole association: 5.5 4.6 4.6 5.5 9.0 8.0 10.3 13.0 10.0 10.9 6.5 5.9 5.7 5.4 8.4 7.6 12.6 15.7 13.2 16.0 7.3 7.8 6.5 7.8 7.5 10.9 15.4 18.8 16.5 19.9 8.9 10.0 7.2 8.2 10.9 11.2 16.3 18.5 17.7 19.6 8.9 10.0 7.1 9.3 11.5 13.9 19.1 22.7 19.3 23.1 11.1 10.8 10.0 9.5 14.5 14.9 22.6 23.4 20.7 25.6 12.2 12.5 10.5 11.8 14.5 17.4 21.1 26.8 23.3 27.4 14.8 14.0 11.1 14.0 16.0 17.3 24.7 26.8 25.8 29.7 15.9 16.9 15.2 16.4 18.6 19.3 24.8 27.5 27.8 29.1 15.8 16.2 14.0 16.0 17.6 21.4 23.8 28.5 26.1 32.0 19.3 19.7 17.3 18.3 22.4 23.4 28.7 25.9 28.0 33.1 6. Genus-species association: record ( Girls c. Opposites association: d. Digit-symbol substitution: e. Symbol-digit substitution: record \ Girls * The figures in this table represent the results of Pyle's investigations. For conven- ience the figures were taken from Whipple, G. M., Manual of Mental and Physical Tests, part ii, pp. 75, 78, 82, 139, 140. 38 PRINCIPLES OP SECONDARY EDUCATION In this table it is to be noted that here again we find development of the various mental traits with age and differ- ences in the rates of development as well as in the dates when the limits of improvement begin to be approached. It is, of course, obvious that practice and training exert great influence on such traits as are involved in the processes of association. Measurement of the development of various memories with age indicate much the same general tendencies as those suggested by the measurements of various forms of associa- tion and substitution. This appears from figures which represent the results of a number of investigations. TABLE XXII. THE DEVELOPMENT OF VARIOUS MEMORIES WITH AGE* Age in years , 8 9 10 11 IS 13 U 15 16 17 18 a. Memory span for Digits: t 6. Memory concrete words :J Average ( Boys 6.6 31.2 32.9 22.9 20.5 ISO 6.7 32.4 32.7 26.3 24.0 140 6.8 35.8 39.6 26.8 31.0 150 7.2 37.7 37.7 31.7 31.8 150 7.4 37.7 38.7 31.0 34.0 164 7.3 38.3 40.4 32.4 36.0 Ifi •> 7.3 40.0 44.2 37.3 39.0 16Q 7.7 40.2 42.0 34.1 37.8 160 8.0 43.4 42.5 40.0 41.0 170 8.0 45.7 40.5 41.1 37.0 8.0 49.0 52.0 40.8 49.0 c. Memory abstract words: ** record ( Girls d. Memory related words :tt record | Girls e. Memory unrelated words: it Average ( Boys 13.0 11.1 11 5 14.0 12.2 1? 4 15.3 12.2 144 16.5 12.5 14 :! 16.0 12.8 14.0 17.0 13.5 IS 5 17.5 13.7 14 0 17.5 13.7 14 0 17.8 14.0 14.5 /. Memory ideas :§ Average ( Boys 24.3 28.5 28.7 si.q 30.0 33.5 32.9 36.4 35.1 38.1 36.8 38.5 36.1 39.0 36.5 39.1 34.4 37.3 34.6 36.6 36.9 37.8 Whipple, G. M., Manual of Mental and Physical Tests, part n, who reproduced them from works and reports cited. For the original data see the references given by Whipple, op. tit. ** Ibid., p. 174. * The figures in this table were taken from Whipple, G. M., Manual of Mental and ysical Tests, part n, who reproduced them from works and reports of the investigators . t Whipple, op. tit., p. 172. tt Ibid., p. 188. I Ibid., p. 173. tt Ibid., p. 188. § Ibid., p. 211. These figures indicate a general growth of memories with age in most instances continuing through the period of school life. Summarizing the matter considered in this section we MENTAL TRAITS OF THE PUPIL 39 are probably safe in holding (1) that in general mental traits improve in efficiency, throughout the period of elementary and secondary education; (2) that the rate of improvement with age varies for the different mental traits; (3) that the limits of improvement vary; (4) that there is no evidence that any given status once attained is diminished, except in so far as being in part due to practice and training, deteri- oration may take place because of the discontinuance of practice or a change in training. II. THE ORDER OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF MENTAL TRAITS n. Theories of the development of mental traits. Serious consequences for secondary education depend on the theory which is followed concerning the order of the development of various mental traits. Two conflicting theories are found. One theory postulates that certain mental processes, e.g., memory, begin their development earlier, develop more rapidly, and approach their maximal development earlier than other mental traits, e.g., reasoning; sometimes further assuming that once the maximum stage of development is reached a period of deterioration sets in. As a consequence it is sometimes maintained that emphasis should be placed on special mental processes at particular ages or stages of development, e.g., that sense perception and sensory di&' crimination should be emphasized in the education of young children, that education before the age of twelve should em- phasize memory and drill, and that reasoning should be re- served for emphasis at adolescence in the secondary school. For convenience we may term this a Theory of Serial or Periodic Development. The second theory assumes that, ex- cept as affected by exercise and training (factors which may be controlled extensively), the fundamental mental processes 40 PRINCIPLES OP SECONDARY EDUCATION develop gradually, continuously, and in a relative degree concomitantly, if not from birth, certainly from the begin- ning of education in the school, until their maxima are approached; and, further, that deterioration does not nec- essarily set in until an age much later than the limit of school life. Consequently on the basis of this theory it is maintained that there are no periods in school education when training in certain mental processes should be em- phasized to the minimizing or neglect of others. For con- venience this may be called a Theory of Concomitant De- velopment. A diagrammatic presentation may illustrate more clearly the difference between the two theories: Earlier age Later age Theory of *| f Trait A Serial or I I Trait B Periodic Development J [ Trait C Theory of 1 f Trait A Concomitant \ \ Trait B Development J (.Trait C For examples, sensory discrimination may be represented by Trait A, certain forms of memory by Trait B, and certain forms of reasoning by Trait C. 12. The theory of serial development. From the begin- ning of formal education the theory has always been promi- nent that certain ages were especially appropriate for the training and utilization of different mental processes, on the basis of the supposed superiority of those mental traits at different periods. Likewise it has been supposed that training hi and use of certain mental processes should be deferred until the periods when their delayed operation MENTAL TRAITS OF THE PUPIL 41 should begin. Typical of such a theory from one point of view was that of Rosenkrantz who divides the life of the child into an intuitive, an imaginative, and a logical epoch. During the first of these periods the appeal should be to the senses. Later imagination and memory are called into play, and the entire movement should culminate in stirring up the logical processes.1 A demarcation somewhat similar^ though by no means so rigid, is made by Bagley: The factor that operates most effectively hi the transition period (ages six to eight) is vivid portrayal dealing almost exclusively with concrete experiences. Repetition is frequently in order, provided that it involves a minimum of strain and fatigue. Logical reasoning is entirely out of place, and symbols must not be used apart from a direct connection with the concrete experiences for which they stand. ... In the formative period (ages eight to twelve), repeti- tion is the watchword, but it should be strongly supplemented by vivid portrayal and, in the later stages, by the simpler operations of logical reasoning. Symbols should still be closely associated with the concrete, but there is some place for the operation of verbal memory through repetition, even if the underlying conceptions have not been thoroughly traced out. . . . Organization of logical reasoning holds undisputed sway ha the adolescent stage (ages twelve to eighteen). . . . Moral culture is now entirely of the rational type.2 The basis of this theory would appear to be found in the relation which exists between the different mental processes and the order of their operation with reference to any given material. If we consider the mental processes in the order of the simplest and most fundamental to the most complex, e.g., sensation, perception, imagery, association and disso- 1 Henderson, E. N., Textbook in the Principles of Education, p. 171. Quoted with the permission of the publishers, The Macmillan Company. 2 Bagley, W. C., The Educative Process, pp. 201-202 et antea. Quoted with the permission of the publishers, The Macmillan Company. 42 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION elation, memory, reasoning, combinations of processes, it is recognized that the efficient operation of the latter must be conditioned by the operation of the former processes on which they depend. Association cannot take place without perception and imagery; memory depends on association; reasoning depends on association and dissociation ; ordinary learning processes depend on a combination of all mental processes. In a sense, therefore, the operation of the more complex mental processes must follow the operation of the more simple processes. This is true, however, with respect to the application of those processes to specific material and specific situations only; it cannot be considered to mean that complex mental processes applied to materials of every sort and to every situation must wait on the perfection of the operation of the simpler processes as applied to all materials and to all situations, or to mean that the simpler processes can be perfected " in general." Such an assumption as that commonly made involves a theory of general faculties which is quite contrary to modern psychology. The point is well taken by Henderson in commenting on the theory of Rosen- krantz : It involves the assumption that the faculties are distinct, and that they develop independently. The child, it is assumed, first observes without remembering or imagining to any great extent. He thus develops a power of observation that may be used in any field without reference to subject-matter. Later other powers appear, and as soon as one emerges a new form of instruction be- comes possible. It is absurd to reason with a child who has not yet attained to the logical period, or to expect him to remember and imagine while he is still in the intuitive stage. Moreover, when once children have reached the rational age, it is supposed that they will be logical on any subject. All these assumptions are faulty. As a matter of fact, a child is usually in the intuitive epoch in respect to some subjects and in the logical as regards others. The analysis of the mental processes does not, as we now realize, mean the discovery of independent faculties, but rather the revelation MENTAL TRAITS OF THE PUPIL 43 of the forms through which any given content must pass as the mind reflects upon it and utilizes it in new conditions. As a guide 10 the method by which new material must be presented, the idea of a psychological order of development is of great value. But as a clue to the way in which a subject must be taught to a child of a certain age, no matter what his previous experience with that material may have been, it is, to say the least, to be used with caution. Common sense, indeed, tells us that we cannot expect from young children certain complicated pieces of reasoning, based on comprehensive experience and a large number of well-mastered concepts. Nevertheless, it is astonishing what seemingly impossible feats such children will perform, provided the ground is properly prepared. Mathematical analysis impossible to untrained though intelligent adults can be carried on by children in the primary grades.1 13. The theory of concomitant development. Opposed to the theory of serial or periodic development is the theory of concomitant development of mental processes. This theory postulates that with respect to the fundamental psychologi- cal processes 2 the mode of their operation is the same from birth to death, that their relative efficiency at any given period is determined by the amount of their exercise and the character of the materials on which they are exercised, and that development of mental traits is to be measured not with reference to general faculties but with reference to specific material. The theory may be illustrated in the views of representative psychologists and educators. Dewey's view may be seen from the following quotations : The method that emphasizes the psychological and natural, but yet fails to see what an important part of the natural tendencies is constituted at every period by growth of curiosity, inference, and the desire to test, cannot secure a natural development. In natural growth each successive stage of activity prepares unconsciously, 1 Henderson, E. N., Textbook in the Principles of Education, pp. 171-72. Quoted with the permission of the publishers, The Macmillan Company. 8 For the time being excluding instincts, interests, etc. 44 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION but thoroughly, the conditions for the manifestation of the next stage — as in the cycle of a plant's growth. There is no ground for assuming that "thinking" is a special, isolated natural tendency that will bloom inevitably in due season simply because various sense and motor activities have been freely manifested before; or because observation, memory, imagination, and manual skill have been previously exercised without thought. Only when thinking is constantly employed in using the senses and muscles for the guidance and application of observations and movements, is the way prepared for subsequent higher types of thinking. At present the notion is current that childhood is almost entirely unreflective — a period of mere sensory, motor, and memory development, while adolescence suddenly brings the manifesta- tions of thought and reason. Adolescence is not, however, a synonym for magic. Doubtless youth should bring with it an enlargement of the horizon of child- hood, a susceptibility to larger concerns and issues, a more generous and a more general standpoint toward nature and social life. This development affords an opportunity for thinking of a more compre- hensive and abstract type than has previously obtained. But think- ing itself remains just what it has been all the time: a matter of following up and testing conclusions suggested by the facts and events of life. Thinking begins as soon as the baby who has lost the ball that he is playing with begins to foresee the possibility of something not yet existing — its recovery ; and begins to forecast steps toward the realization of this possibility, and, by experimen- tation, to guide his acts by his ideas and thereby also to test the ideas. Only by making the most of the thought factor, already active in the experience of childhood, is there any promise or war- rant for the emergence of superior reflective power at adolescence, or at any later period.1 I have come to believe that reasoning itself, the capacity or ability to reason (or that bundle of minor abilities of which reason- ing consists), is not capable of being improved with growing years, or, at least, its improvement is not sufficiently marked to be worth mentioning. Professor James in his Psychology speaks in this way about organic memory — "the power to retain." Later investiga- tions have led to some modifications of his statement, but it is 1 Dewey, J., How We Think, pp. 65-66. Quoted with the permission of the publishers, D. C. Heath & Co. MENTAL TRAITS OF THE PUPIL 45 generally admitted that the power to improve radical or funda- mental memory is slight.1 There are different objects to think about, and different purposes for which to think, because children and grown-ups have different kinds of acts to perform — different lines of occupation, hi short. The adult has obviously more complicated activities to carry on; he has concerns that continue over longer stretches of time so that more details enter in, and results are postponed. Hence he must constantly look ahead. The process of thinking is essentially the same for little children; but there is such a difference in the materi- als with which the thinking is done, and the ends for the sake of which it is carried on, that the impression is easily created that the thinking itself is of a radically different order.2 Much the same general viewpoint is that of Thorndike: Now about these mental states (feelings of relationship, meaning, judgments, the three sorts of mental stuff that play the great roles in rational thinking) in children we may say that by the school age, and in fact long before then, they are all present. The six- year-old has all the elementary feelings involved in reasoning. The change which occurs is not the appearance of these feelings, but their increase in number and definiteness and a change in the manner of their use. The constant increase in general experience of things, and more particularly in increase in definite study of things due to educational influences, forces children to know more relationships between things just as it does to know more things. More and more minute and more comprehensive relationships are grasped. We have thus all stages, from the baby who feels that his father is not like his mother, that two pieces of candy are more than one, to the scientist who notes the similarity between man and the older monkeys or relates the phenomena of gravitation to elec- trical charges of ions.3 . . . From these facts it is clear that, as regards the mechanics of the reasoning process, children differ from adults only as adults differ among themselves. Not some mysterious inner transforma- 1 Dewey, J., "Reasoning in Early Childhood," Teachers College Record, vol. xv, no. 1, p. 9. 2 Ibid., p. 10. s Thorndike, E. L., Notes on Child Study (2d edition), pp. 92-93. 46 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION tion, but the enlargement and refinement of experience, the forma- tion of systems and suitable ideas, the knowledge of aspects or ele- ments of things essential to different purposes, the acquisition and habitual use of systematic methods of forming and testing con- clusions, the growth of skepticism concerning the similarity of things alike in some respects, the definition of terms and the crystal- lization of experiences into judgments, are what make the rational man out of the blundering child.1 From these typical views it is clear that the theory in- volved concerning the fundamental mental processes is one which assumes that the development of efficiency is more dependent on growth as affected by experience and training than on a serial development of capacities determined by the forces of inner growth, and that all the mental processes are so interrelated and interdependent that serial or periodic development is out of the question. 14. An evaluation of the theories of development. The burden of evidence would appear to be in favor of the theory of interdependent or concomitant development, especially with reference to ordinary mental processes fundamental to learning. Evidence from theoretic psychology, from ex- perimental measurement, and from empirical knowledge gained through ordinary experience inside and outside the school, all point toward the same conclusion — that the fun- damental mental processes begin with the early years and continue throughout life without change as far as the mode of their operation is concerned. Development is predomi- nantly a matter of the accumulation of experiences which affect all the fundamental processes. The laws of mental life point unmistakably to an interdependence of the mental processes which precludes any conception of a development of any fundamental process without a possible, commonly a necessary, corresponding modification of those by which 1 Thorndike, E. L., Notes on Child Study (2d edition), p. 97. MENTAL TRAITS OF THE PUPIL 47 its development is conditioned and those whose develop- ment is conditioned by it. The stimulus of life's activities, including those of formal education, alone determine whether or not any given mental process shall be exercised and that stimulus affects all mental processes at all ages. If we turn from the general laws of psychology to the re- sults of experimental investigation of the mental processes employed by children of different ages the evidence points in the same direction. Such measurements as those con- sidered in Tables XIX to XXII indicate that the processes or traits considered were to be found in some degree La children of all ages within the period of school life. This is clearly shown also by the Courtis Tests and by Bonser's studies.1 It is also true of more general mental operations: The ideas of the child are largely new, while those of the adult are oftener old or connected with old ideas; hence the adult's mental grasp is greater chiefly because of knowledge and experi- ence. The effect of knowledge on mental grasp is well shown by a series of experiments in which first-grade children and adults reproduce ordinary letters, Greek letters, and familiar sentences. The adults have little advantage in the case of Greek letters, a great deal in ordinary letters, and are almost infinitely better in reproducing the letters making a sentence. Evidently the differ- ence is due to greater familiarity and increased mental grasp.2 If the evidence from the general laws of mental life and the evidence from experimental investigation were wanting, ordinary empirical evidence should be sufficient to guard us against the assumption that young children remember bet- ter than older children or that the processes of reasoning do not afford educational opportunity to any considerable ex- tent until the dawn of adolescence. All forms of the mental 1 Bonser, F. G., The Reasoning Abilities of Children of the Fourth, Fifth and Sixth School Grades. 2 Kirkpatrick, E. A., Fundamentals of Child Study, p. 255. Quoted with the permission of the publishers, The Maciiiillan Company. 4U PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION processes are found in the activities of children throughout the school period. Nor is it true that during the early pe- riods concrete experience alone forms the stuff of mental life and that symbolic and abstract materials are either the sole materials appropriate to later school life or confined to the later periods. Symbolic imagery of the most common type, i.e., letters, words, arithmetical symbols, etc., are employed almost at the very beginning of the child's school life and play a most prominent part throughout. Abstract thinking of a high order may be found in operation in any grade of the school. The extent to which one may rely in teaching on the more complex mental processes is determined by the amount of previous experience rather than by the chrono- logical age reached by the pupils. There is a dangerous tendency manifest in some quarters to assume that a close analogy is warranted between the fun- damental mental processes and instincts and to base a theory of deferred development and transitory quality for the com- mon mental processes on the assumption of such character- istics for instincts. While the majority of instincts, e.g., fear, curiosity, imitation, etc., are manifest in children from birth, certain other instincts, e.g., the sex instincts, are con- ceived to be delayed until about the stage of puberty. Like- wise j.t is commonly held that certain instincts, e.g., the " collecting instinct," tend to be transitory, manifesting a period of waxing, a period of ascendency, and a period of waning. Whether or not such characteristics are of frequent occurrence with reference to instincts, there is little ground for assuming like phenomena to be characteristic of the fundamental mental processes of sense-perception, memory, reasoning, and the like. If this is the case with James's temperate account, what shall we say of those who describe the inner growth of man's instincts and capacities altogether as a series of tendencies, appearing, wait- MENTAL TRAITS OF THE PUPIL 49 ing, lasting a brief space and vanishing unless then and there fixed as habits — like the ripening of fruits which soon decay unless pre- served by the housewivery of habits, or like a procession of candi- dates which pass through an office, disappearing for good and all unless enlisted at the time and drilled by some recruiting officer of the mind. Such a sharp definition of the rise and fall of original tendencies in a serial order of stages or epochs seems to me to be a gross exaggeration, corresponding only here and there to the actual progress of inner development.1 It is doubtful, indeed, that delay in appearance or tran- sitoriness is a law of any extensive application with refer- ence to instincts (though perhaps quite the reverse is true with respect to specific manifestations in the form of special interests which are highly susceptible to the influence of the environment and special training) . With respect to the fundamental mental processes evidence is wanting that it can apply at all. 15. Implications for secondary education. Almost every phase of the work of the secondary school is affected to a greater or less extent by the theory accepted concerning the order and rate of mental development. Certain implications may be briefly considered here. (1) Affecting organization and administration: The articu- lation between elementary education and secondary educa- tion has frequently been based in part on the theory that the mental development of children is serial and periodic and that important differences between children of earlier and later ages justify a rather sharp distinction between elementary and secondary education. This theory is always more or less associated with certain theories of adolescence in relation to secondary education which will be considered at greater length in following sections. In anticipation, how- 1 Thorndike, E. L., The Original Nature of Man, pp. 266-67. Quoted with the permission of the publishers, Teachers College Bureau of Publica- tions. 50 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION ever, two quotations may be given to illustrate the general attitude. Thus Bagley: From these facts (those of mental changes at adolescence), it follows that the methods of moral culture must be transformed almost in a day. Just as in mental training "the drill and mechan- ism of the previous period must be relaxed," so, in moral training, the arbitrary and authoritative rulings that have hitherto been the mainstay must now give place to reason.1 In a similar vein writes Davis: American educational work wrongly organized. — Again the pres- ent mode of organizing and administering educational work in America is psychologically ill-grounded. The adolescent period usually begins at about the age of twelve years. With the dawn of this new period come most notable changes in physical form, structure, and function and most decided concomitant psycho- logical changes. At this period self-consciousness is born. The interests that formerly held dominant sway are cast aside. New motives stir, new aspirations fire, new goals beckon. Conscious logical reason begins to proclaim itself. The mind is no longer satisfied with mere empirical facts, but it demands that the facts be presented in their essential relations. . , . To enforce unnatural restraints upon an adolescent is to deaden his sensibilities, stifle his intellectual and his social enthusiasm, and atrophy his powers. To keep him under the restrictive and arbitrary discipline of the ordinary elementary school is to sin against nature and to commit an offence against the laws of social well-being. To employ with him the methods of instruction and training of the elementary school is to provoke him to truancy, encourage him to evade school work, and impel him to forsake school duties altogether. The. beginning of adoles- cence is most emphatically the beginning of the period of secondary education. As our schools are organized and administered to-day this fact is ignored.2 1 Bagley, W. C., The Educative Process, p. 200. Italics by the present writer. Quoted with the permission of the publishers, The Macmillan Company. 2 Davis, C. O., Principles and Plans for Reorganizing Secondary Educa- tion, pp. 69-70 of Johnston, C. H. (Editor), High School Education. Italics by the present writer. Quoted with the permission of the publishers, Charles Scribner's Sons. MENTAL TRAITS OF THE PUPIL 51 Underlying such statements as those cited is a theory that elementary and secondary education can be distinguished on the basis of the " mental stages " of the children as deter- mined by the inner growth of certain mental traits, with particular reference to a sudden burst of the capacity to rea- son with an assumed sudden onset of adolescence. In con- trast with such a theory the theory of concomitant develop- ment of mental traits would justify no such sharp division between elementary and secondary education, but, on the contrary, emphasizes the importance of recognizing that there can be no sharp dividing line between the two and demands that the transition from elementary education to secondary education be gradual and continuous. (2} Affecting subject-matter: A theory of the serial and periodic development of mental traits has frequently been made the basis of the assignment of various subjects of study to different parts of the school course, assigning to the earlier years subjects of study which are conceived to de- pend for their mastery on more or less mechanical processes, especially motor ability and memory, and assigning to the later years those subjects of study which are conceived to demand reasoning ability. Thus it is frequently argued that subjects of study requiring motor skill are best acquired by children in the elementary school or in the early grades of the secondary school. Likewise it is argued that the study of foreign languages should be begun at about the age of twelve because of the demand which it makes on memory. So, also, it is claimed that subjects calling for aesthetic ap- preciation such as literature, and subjects calling for logical reasoning should be deferred and offered relatively late in the school course. Whatever other reasons may justify the location of subjects in various grades of the school, little jus- tification can be found for such arguments as may depend for their validity on an assumption that special mental pro' 52 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION cesses are especially favorable at certain ages. Far more satis- factory is the theory that social economy and the character of specific training already given and acquired should be the criteria determining the values and positions of subjects of study in the school. As a matter of fact a subject of study which made no demand ori perception, conception, imagery, memory, reasoning (if such should be conceived as a reality) could not be considered appropriate for education, and fail- ure to employ any of those processes in earlier education would probably be the best guarantee that that process would not be efficient at a later stage. (3) Affecting methods of teaching: Obviously the theory adopted with respect to the development of mental traits vitally concerns the methods to be employed in teaching any subject. According to the theory of serial or periodic de- velopment emphasis on the concrete or abstract, on memory or reasoning, is to be determined by the age of the pupil and without reference to the stage of his development with re- spect to the specific materials concerned. At a certain age teaching methods are to rely primarily on memory and to minimize dependence on reasoning. In the succeeding stage the process is to be reversed and inner growth alone is sup- posed to make possible extensive reliance on the pupil's ability to reason. The conception has vicious results, not only in that it assumes the possibility of the sudden aban- donment of habits of memorizing which have been fostered carefully in the earlier stage, and assumes the ready develop- ment of habits and ideals of reasoning, but also because it leads to an overemphasis on memorization in the earlier stages and a failure to give needed practice to reasoning with- out which it is impossible to find it effective at later stages. Only when proper exercise is given to the reasoning processes in connection with the simpler experiences of the earlier stages is there any warrant for expecting their effective oper- MENTAL TRAITS OF THE PUPIL 55 ation with the more complex experiences of the later period. In this connection it may be noted that when reasoning is neglected in the elementary school and emphasized in the high school the rather rapid development of capacity previ- ously discouraged may give the appearance of a sudden inner growth which is, however, but the natural expansion of a capacity previously neglected. As opposed to this theory, the theory of continuous and concomitant development demands that each mental trait receive due attention throughout the school course and that methods of teaching be adapted to utilize all the fundamental mental traits from the beginning. Obviously maturity here as elsewhere must be an important factor, but maturity should not be measured on the basis of a series of delayed developments of the different mental traits. (4) Affecting discipline and treatment of the pupil: Ac- cording to the theory of serial or periodic development the treatment of pupils would be determined largely by the factor of age, postulating rather mechanical, submissive action by the pupils during the earlier stages and deferring appeals to reason until the later stages. According to the theory of continuous and concomitant development appeals to the reason of pupils are as appropriate at one age as at another, provided they are adapted to the specific stages of development and provided they are expressed in terms or actions which the pupils' previous experiences can interpret. In any event the transition from the rule of rules to the rule of reason must be gradual. III. THEORIES OF THE INFLUENCE OF ADOLESCENCE ON DEVELOPMENT OF MENTAL TRAITS 16. Theories of the influence of adolescence. Closely related to the problem considered above is the problem of 54 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION the influence of adolescence on the development of mental traits and its bearing on secondary education. In its most general form the problem may be stated as follows: Is the course of the development of mental traits such that there are periods of relatively rapid and relatively slow growth, or, is the process of development essentially continuous and gradual? In more special form as having direct bearing on secondary education the problem may be stated thus : Is the onset of puberty (the initial stage of adolescence) relatively sudden and abrupt, does its abrupt appearance entail sud- den marked changes in general physical development, and do abrupt and sudden changes in mental traits coincide with such physical changes, or, are all the mental phenomena which are supposed to accompany adolescence characterized by gradual maturing ? Two theories are found in psycho- logical and educational theory. One theory assumes that the development of mental traits at adolescence is relatively rapid and is characterized by sudden and relatively abrupt changes. It is commonly termed the Theory of Saltatory Development (Latin saltare = to leap, to proceed by leaps). The other theory assumes that development is essentially continuous and gradual, such fluctuations as occur merely representing the usual phenomena of a variable factor. This may be called the Theory of Gradual Development. The two theories may be roughly contrasted by diagrams. (Figure A.) 17. The theory of saltatory development. The phenomena of puberty and adolescence have always been fraught with interest to students of education and particularly to students of secondary education. This interest always present has been stimulated to a high degree by the results of the child study movement of the past quarter century and especially by the publication of Hall 's monumental work on Ado- lescence in 1904. Subsequent to the publication of that book few treatments of adolescence, or of the development of MENTAL TRAITS OF THE PUPIL Theory of Saltatory Development Ago 0 Theory of Gradual Development Age 0 physical and mental traits with age, have been unaffected by the data which Hall presented and the theories which he set forth. Prominent among those theories was the theory of the saltatory development of mental traits at adolescence, and most treatments of that topic have been more or less colored by the tenets of Hall and his school. Representative opinions will illustrate the form which the theory of saltatory development takes among its advocates. Burnham states it thus: Physiological changes: Everybody is familiar with the more ob- vious changes that occur at this period. The reproductive organs increase in size, the larynx enlarges, the vocal cords become elon- gated, the volume of the heart is increased. . . . Probably equally important changes occur in the brain; for the shape of the head changes, .and new intellectual and emotional activities of this period must be accompanied by the functioning of the cerebral centres that have lain dormant before. This is, moreover, a period of specially rapid growth in both sexes. 56 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION Psychological changes. The psychological changes at puberty are no less remarkable. There is a great influx of new sensations. The brain, aroused by these new stimuli, increases its activity. The psychic concomitant of this increased cerebral activity is mani- fested in a variety of ways. The adolescent mind is filled with hopes, dreams, tempestuous passions, and new ideas. Social and ethical impulses become dominant; egoism often gives place to altruism. Political or religious zeal sometimes become the main- spring of action. The reasoning powers come into use.1 Hall's theory of the development of physical and mental traits with adolescence is not so readily gained through a single quotation or a few quotations, as from the general tenor of his work. A few characteristic passages, however, will illustrate his theory: Adolescence is a new birth, for the higher and more completely human traits are now born. The qualities of body and soul that now emerge are far newer. The child comes from and harks "back to a remoter past; the adolescent is neo-atavistic, and in him the later acquisitions of the race slowly become prepotent. Develop- ment is less gradual and more saltatory, suggestive of some ancient period of storm and stress when old moorings were broken and a higher level attained. The annual rate of growth in height, weight, and strength is increased and often doubled, and even more. Im- portant functions previously non-existent arise. Growth of parts and organs loses its former proportions, some permanently and some for a season. Some of these are still growing in old age and others are soon arrested and atrophy. The old moduli of dimen- sions become obsolete and old harmonies are broken. The range of individual differences and average errors in all physical measure- ments and all psychic tests increases. Some linger long in the childish stage and advance late or slowly, while others push on with a sudden outburst of impulsion to early maturity.2 1 Burnham, W. H., "The Study of Adolescence," Pedagogical Seminary, vol. i (1891), pp. 175-76. 2 Hall, G. S., Adolescence, vol. i, p. xiii. Hall's statement that, the range of individual differences in all physical measurements and psychic tests in- creases is open to contradiction. Cf. Terman, L. M., The Measurement of Intelligence, p. 67. 57 In adolescence, individualism is suddenly augmented and begins to sense its limits and its gradual subordination to the race which the Fates prescribe.1 At adolescence each of the senses undergoes certain character- istic changes of structure, function, or both. Interests change and with them the organs of apperception, so that aspects and elements different from those hitherto absorbing the complex but already familiar objects of sense become foci of attention. . . . One of the most important and comprehensive modifications is, that whereas most sense stimuli before this age tend strongly to provoke reflex reactions, after it these tend to be delayed or better organized, as if there were a marked increase of associative or central func- tions. Before, the projection system predominated, and stimuli, suggestion, and afferent processes generally passed more readily over to the efferent or motor tracts; but now we have increased cerebral irradiations, and there is a marked advance in the develop- ment of the long-circuiting functions of thought, deliberation, and reflection.2 Of all the changes normal at adolescence, none are more com- prehensive and perhaps none are now more typical of the psychic transformation of this age than those that occur in the attitude toward the various aspects of nature. . . . The new life is first born in the heart, and is more or less unconscious, and among its first spontaneous creations are metaphors that may fade and be often recreated, so that language itself becomes fossil poetry. Allegory gives things a dual meaning; symbolism is now first possible, and a widening circle of objects and events acquire a new purport.3 At the dawn of adolescence this impulse to migrate or wander shows a great and sudden increase.4 But with the teens all this begins to be changed and many of these precepts (for previous education) must be gradually reversed. There is an outburst of growth that needs a large part of the total kinetic energy of the -body. . . . The mind at times grows in leaps and bounds in a way that seems to defy the great enemy, fatigue, and yet when the teacher grows a little tiresome the pupil is tired in a moment.5 1 Hall, G. S., Adolescence, vol. n, p. 58. Quotations from Adolescence with the permission of the publishers, D. Appleton & Co. 2 Ibid., vol. ii, p. 2. 3 Ibid., vol. n, pp. 144-45. 4 Ibid., vol. 11, p. 377. 6 Ibid., vol. n, pp. 453-54. 58 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION Whether or not unqualified advocacy of the theory of saltatory development can be ascribed to Hall, certain it is that many educators and psychologists more or less in- fluenced by his work have adopted that theory without appreciable qualification. On no other theory could be justi- fied such extravagant expressions as the following: " At this period self-consciousness is born. The interests that for- merly held dominant sway are cast aside. New motives stir, new aspirations fire, new goals beckon. Conscious logical reason begins to proclaim itself." 1 " Mentally, then, as well as physically, adolescence is a new birth"; 2 etc. 18. The theory of gradual development. Opposed to the theory of saltatory development is the theory of gradual development which postulates that growth in the mental traits is essentially gradual. Again the form which this theory may be seen best from typical views. Thus Thorndike: I conclude, therefore, that the development of mental traits with age has not been and cannot be adequately measured by such studies as those quoted (Gilbert). To measure it we must repeat measurements upon the same individuals and for all purposes of inference preserve intact each of the individual changes. In con- nection with each of them account must be taken of the training which the individual in question has undergone. What measurements we do have may serve,- however, to correct two errors of common opinion. The notion that the increases in ability due to a given amount of progress toward maturity are closely alike for all children, save the so-called "abnormally preco- cious" or "retarded," is false. The same fraction of the total inner development, from zero to adult ability, will produce very unequal results in different children. Inner growth acts differently, accord- ing to the original nature that is growing. The notion that maturity is the main factor in the differences found amongst school children, so that grading and methods of 1 Davis, C. O., p. 69, of Johnston, C. H. (Editor), High School Educa- tion. 2 Bagley, W. C., The Educative Process, p. 196. MENTAL TRAITS OF THE PUPIL 59 teaching should be fitted closely to "stage of growth," is also false. It is by no means very hard to find seven-year-olds who can do intellectual work at which one in twenty seventeen-year-olds would fail.1 Two general questions concerning the time-relations of original tendencies may be discussed here because of their intrinsic impor- tance and their service in predisposing the student to a critical atti- tude in connection with the general literature of mental development in childhood. These questions concern the suddenness of the wax- ing of delayed tendencies and the frequency of transitory tendencies. It is a favorite dictum of superficial psychology and pedagogy that instincts lie entirely dormant and then spring into full strength within a few weeks. At a certain stage, we are told, such and such a tendency has its "nascent period" or ripening time. Three is the age for fear, six is the age for climbing, fifteen is the age for coopera- tiveness, and the like. The same doctrine is applied to the sup- posed "faculties" or very general capacities of the mind. Within a year or two around eight the child is said to change from a mere bundle of sensory capacities, to a child possessed of imagination; somewhere around thirteen another brief score of months brings his reasoning up from near zero to nearly full energy; a year or two somewhere in the teens creates altruism! These statements are almost certainly misleading. The one in- stinct whose appearance seems most like a dramatic rushing upon life's stage — • the sex instinct — is found upon careful study to be gradually maturing for years. The capacity for reasoning shows no signs by any tests as yet given of developing twice as much in any one year from five to twenty-five as in any other. In the cases where the differences between children of different ages may be taken roughly to measure the rate of inner growth of capacities, what data we have show nothing to justify the doctrine of sudden ripening in a serial order.2 The few interests whose strength, period by period, have been more or less well measured, give no evidence of any sudden acces- 1 Thorndike, E. L., Educational Psychology, vol. m (1914), pp. 279-80. Quoted with the permission of the publishers, Teachers College Bureau of Publications. 2 Thorndike, E. L., The Original Nature of Man, pp. 260-61. Quoted with the permission of the publishers, Teachers College Bureau of Publi- cations. 60 PRINCIPLES OP SECONDARY EDUCATION sion of power. Thus collecting seems to increase in vigor gradually from before six to ten. The capacities of sensory discrimination, memory, observation and the like which have been measured in children at different ages, are of course in the conditions that they are at any age because of training as well as inner growth, and the facts concerning their rates of gain cannot be used at their face value in our argument. But so far as they do go, they give no sup- port to the theory of the sudden rise of inner tendencies. Indeed every tendency that has been subjected to anything like rigid scru- tiny seems to fit the word gradual rather than the word sudden in the rate of its maturing.1 Briefly stated, Thorndike's theory may be considered essentially this: that development must be considered chiefly with reference to the individual and with less im- portance attached to group averages; that development is a matter of specific traits, not general " faculties "; that the data accessible as regards both physical and mental develop- ment are at present very inadequate; that, such as the evi- dence is, it points toward continuous and gradual develop- ment rather than toward sudden transitions. These views essentially constitute the theory of gradual development. The general theory of continuous and gradual develop- ment is expressed by King as follows: When any period of life is set off for special study there is dan- ger of drawing a picture that is exaggerated and untrue to reality. This is especially the case with both childhood and youth. In our eagerness to state clearly the traits of the period with which we are concerned, we tend to draw lines of definite separation between what has come before and what comes after. This indeed has been a vice of all those who take up any part of a series of changes for particular study. . . . In just this same way the so-called periods of life from birth to maturity exist largely in the mind of the over-eager observer. The more we know about human nature, the more we are convinced 1 Thorndike, E. L., The Original Nature of Man, pp. 262-63. Quoted with the permission of the publishers, Teachers College Bureau of Publi- cations. MENTAL TRAITS OF THE PUPIL 61 that development is a continuous process. The child is, it is true, different from the youth, and the youth from the man, but these differences have come about through infinitely minute gradations rather than by great leaps. Much has been made, for instance, of the difference between the religion of the child and of the youth, and yet everything to be found in the moral and religious point of view of the youth had its beginnings and its incubation in child- hood. There is no abrupt shift from one to the other. This does not mean, of course, that no time of life has any striking or dis- tinctive characteristics. We are striving rather to emphasize the fact that what we always find, when we look carefully, is continuity in development rather than abrupt transition. Even on the physical side of child development, this is perfectly true. The tune of rapid growth, at the period of puberty, does not normally begin suddenly nor does it end all at once. Even though the actual rise in the curves of height and weight occur with seem- ing abruptness, the child has, in the years previous, been getting ready for this accelerated development. . . . The development of the sex instinct at puberty is no exception to this rule. The manifestations of this impulse at that time are usually so striking that psychologists have tended to point to it as an instance of sudden transition. The little child has been as- sumed to be sexless in all his interests. The meaning of sex sud- denly, it has been held, dawns upon him at puberty. This view is quite erroneous. The sex life of the child begins at birth. Gradually, through the years of childhood, differentiation goes on, not merely in the physical organism but also hi mental attitudes, interests, in general points of view. One of the most important contributions of the study of early and later childhood has been the discovery that sex impulses and interests appear, normally, very early and develop as an integral part of the childhood self. The period of puberty, therefore, marks no abrupt transition; but is simply the time when the long antecedent development emerges, occupies a larger place in the child's horizon, and attracts the attention of the observer so that he drops into the fallacy of imagining that something entirely new has suddenly come into being. Youth is a transition period, but no more so than is any season of life, so long as life continues to be truly alive, for life is, in its essence, change and progress for better or for worse.1 1 King, I., The High-School Age, pp. 66-71. Quoted with the permission of the author and his publishers, Bobbs-Merrill Company. 62 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION The clarity of King's presentation leaves no opportunity to escape the conclusion that his views involve the theory of continuous and gradual development. 19. Evaluation of the two theories. In attempting to evaluate the two theories of development above presented it is necessary briefly to examine and interpret the data and arguments on which the theories depend. When the theory of saltatory development is thus examined it is found to rest on the assumption of the saltatory development of physical traits, an analogy between physical and mental traits, and certain evidence which is supposed to support the theory directly. Thus it is held that quantitative measurements of certain parts and organs of the body indicate that at puberty a rather sudden and abrupt change is found in the rates of development. Growth in height and weight at adolescence especially is instanced. Facts indicate the possibility of such sudden accession of development in the case of some 'organs and parts of the body, though the interpretation of certain data is open to question because of their character, the method of investigation or measurement, and the deductions made. In the case of other parts and organs the available data point toward quite a different condition, so that it is clear that not all parts and organs manifest sudden matur- ing at puberty and, therefore, that any statement of salta- tory development in general is not justified and probably not true. As has been suggested (e.g., in the quotation from King above), some misconceptions are involved even in interpreting measurements in growth and height, and even in the case of the development of physiological traits char- acteristic of puberty abrupt development is not to be assumed as established. Unless more tangible connection between the physiological organs directly indicative* of puberty and other physical and physiological traits can be shown, we should have little warrant in assuming radical MENTAL TRAITS OF THE PUPIL 63 changes in those other traits to be determined by or to be coincident with puberty, even if it could be shown that the latter were abrupt and sudden in development. The burden of proof is positive, not negative. When the none too well established theory of saltatory development of physical traits is made the basis of an anal- ogy on which to build up a theory of saltatory develop- ment of mental traits, a dangerous step is taken. Argument by analogy is always treacherous and always requires cor- roborative evidence. Certainly in the present case, if it is to be employed at all, the analogy should be drawn to all organs and parts of the body or to the body as a whole, rather than to certain parts only, which themselves differ from other parts in the nature of th^ir development. More appropriate still would be an analogy to the physiological development of the nervous system, especially to the development of the higher centers in the brain. It is, however, just here that we have the least reliable data. Such as the data are they are in many respects unfavorable to a theory of saltatory develop- ment. Certainly it is vicious to argue in a circle that ob- served changes in physical development indicate changes in mental traits, and then to argue that " the new intellectual and emotional activities of this period must be accompanied by the functioning of cerebral centers that have lain dor- mant before." Direct evidence of the development of mental traits with age is of two sorts: (1) that obtained by careful quantitative measurement, and (2) that obtained from psychological introspection (analyzing one 's own mental processes) and through the questionnaire method. Advocates of the theory of saltatory development have depencled largely on the sec- ond of the two sorts of data. The dangers of introspection on the part of untrained persons are. readily recognized. When the errors incident to its vise are combined with the pitfalls of the questionnaire method such results as are obtained cannot be regarded without suspicion and doubt. Certainly an examination of some of the studies made in this field and by those methods cannot fail to leave the critic "';"* , ' " • wholly skeptical of the greater part of such investigations and unwilling to accept the conclusions reached.1 Arguments for the theory of gradual development rest largely on the results of such quantitative measurements as those referred to above. Advocates of the theory hold that such data as we have, inadequate though they are for exact analysis, are indicative of continuous and gradual develop- ment in mental traits. This is shown in the tables presented in the first sections of this chapter. 20. Implications for secondary 4education. The entire a - ~~econojaiyvojF secondary education is seriously affected by the problern invbfyed in the theories above outlined. Questions of vital impei$ance in connection with the organization and administration of the school, subjects of study, methods of teaching, and the treatment of secondary school pupils de- pend for then* solution on the adoption of either of the two theories discussed. (1) Organization and administration : When one examines the literature of secondary education he finds it replete with references to it as the institution for the education of adoles- cent boys and girls, which is in general a fact not open to question. Secondary education is indeed largely a matter of the education of adolescents. When, however, it is main- tained that the change from preadolescence to adolescence is relatively sudden and abrupt, and hence that a relatively radical differentiation should be made between elementary education and secondary education, or that the organization and administration of the school system should be based on 1 For criticism of this method of investigation see Thorndike, E. L., The Original Nature of Man, pp. 27-42. MENTAL TRAITS OF THE PUPIL 65 the assumption that homogeneity is characteristic of the children before and after puberty, the grounds for such a theory are by no means so well established. For many years the assumption that relatively sudden and abrupt changes take place in the individual at the age of approximately fourteen years has been made the justification of our pres- ent division between elementary and secondary education. Thus Monroe: It is now known that during the adolescent period the child undergoes such a radical change, physically and psychically, that education can find in these changes the sufficient basis for a differ- entiation between the earlier and the secondary stages of educa- tion. . . . Other reasons were more influential in setting the age limits of the American secondary school, but the general recogni- tion of the peculiar interests, abilities, and characteristics of the adolescent age has had much to do with determining these limits. While the democratic feature of elementary education is no doubt the determining factor in fixing the beginning of the secondary school period at about the fourteenth year, the recognition of the importance of the adolescent period has grown in weight through- out the history of the American high school.1 More recent studies of the phenomena of puberty and adolescence have been interpreted to indicate that the adoles- cent period usually begins at an earlier stage than at the age of fourteen, probably nearer the age of twelve, and as a result the assertion is sometimes made that on that basis second- ary education should begin at about that age. Thus Davis: Again, the present mode of organizing and administering edu- cational work in America is ill grounded. The adolescent period usually begins at about the age of twelve years. . . . The beginning of adolescence is most emphatically the beginning of the period of secondary education.2 1 Monroe, P., The Principles of Secondary Education, pp. 9-10. Quoted with the permission of the publishers, The Macmillan Company. 1 Davis, C. O., at page 69 of Johnston, C. H. (Editor), High School Education. 66 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION In complete form the argument may be stated thus : Ado- lescence begins at the age of twelve (thirteen ? fourteen?) ; marked, sudden and abrupt physical and psychical changes take place in children at the onset of adolescence; the sepa- ration between elementary education and secondary educa- tion should be determined by this factor of adolescence. It is obvious that the validity of the conclusion depends on the validity of the premises. It is also obvious that the theory of continuous and gradual development would lead to a far different conclusion. The argument based on that theory would run somewhat as follows: Development at puberty and adolescence must be conceived essentially as unitary, continuous, and gradual process, adolescence itself being but a period of change extending over a f airly long period of time and being but an integral part of a larger period of growth without points of definite demarcation which sharply differ- entiate it from earlier or later development. Consequently no definite dates can be set for puberty and adolescence so that any sharp separation of elementary and secondary education is without justification. The general principles affecting the validity of the prem- ises of the two fundamental theories involved have been dis- cussed above. There remain, however, at leakt two impor- tant factors to be considered, especially as affecting the prac- ticability of adapting the organization and administration of the system of education to the implications of the theory of saltatory development at adolescence. The first factor to be considered involves the element of variability. In the data which were presented regarding physical and mental traits emphasis was centered on " averages," etc. It is al- ways important, however, in dealing with groups of indi-* viduals and in measuring traits which vary in amount among those individuals, to take account of the amount of' variability as well as the central tendency as measured by MENTAL TRAITS OF THE PUPIL 67 the average, median, mode, etc. It is recognized that at all times different amounts of a trait will be found for different individuals. It is recognized that the time of the onset of pubescence differs for boys and girls, that the time varies for either sex, and that the duration of the process of change varies. Since we are dealing with a variable quantity it is important to know not only the central tendency of the age at which adolescence begins (e.g., the average age for the beginning of adolescence), but also the amount of the varia- tion from that central tendency. If, for instance, the central tendency of the age for the ending of prepubescence and the beginning of pubescence in the case of boys is found to be fourteen years, and the variation of individuals from that age were such that the majority of boys began to be pubescent within a few months of that age, a working scheme allowing for the saltatory theory of adolescence would be possible. If, on the other hand, the variation were such that a range of a year or two or even more from the central tendency would be found necessary in order to include even a majority of boys, organization and administration on the basis of the saltatory theory of development would be impracticable unless we adopt in toto a scheme of promotion based solely on physiological age as suggested by Crampton and Foster. Fortunately we possess certain figures for variability which may be considered at least as reliable as the figures for aver- ages, etc. Thus, on the basis of his examination of high- school boys of New York City, Crampton found that for the ending of prepubescence and the beginning of pubescence the middle of the mean years was fourteen years, the aver- age age 13.44 years, with a variability of, more or less, 1.55 years, or more than a year and a half. This means that with an average date marking the beginning of pubescence of about thirteen and one half years, it required a range of more than three years to include two thirds of the boys 68 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION measured. The importance of the factor of variability with reference to puberty may be noted from the tables indicat- ing the stages of puberty in high-school boys and in girls (Tables XI and XIII). On the basis of those figures if we should assume that all boys of the age of thirteen could be grouped into one school grade we should find approximately one half of the boys (41-55 per cent) immature (prepubes- cent), approximately one quarter (26-28 per cent) maturing (pubescent), and approximately one quarter (18-31 percent) mature (postpubescent). If we apply the same test to boys fourteen the proportions would be about one fifth (16-26 per cent) immature, about one quarter (24-28 per cent) maturing, and about one half (46-60 per cent) mature. For fifteen-year- old boys the proportions are about twelve per cent imma- ture, about twenty -two per cent maturing, and about sixty- five per cent mature. The writer has applied the estimates of Crampton to the age-grade distribution of the first grade of a number of high schools. In every case on the basis of his figures we should find approximately one quarter of the boys immature, about one fifth in the maturing stage, and a little over one half postpubescent. In the seventh grade about one half of the boys were found, on the basis of such figures, to be in the prepubescent stage, one quarter each in the pubescent and postpubescent stage. In the eighth grade about thirty-five per cent were theoretically in the pre- pubescent stage, about twenty-three per cent in the pu- bescent stage, and about forty-one per cent hi the post- pubescent stage. The second factor which affects the problem is directly related to that just considered and arises out of the age- grade distribution of pupils in the public schools. It is some- times argued that important changes calling for adjustment come with adolescence; it is argued that adolescence begins approximately at the age of twelve (thirteen? fourteen?); MENTAL TRAITS OF THE PUPIL 69 it is argued that the secondary school should begin with children at the age of twelve. The obstinate fact is that we do not get a large proportion of the children of the age of twelve or even thirteen in the seventh grade. Proper recog- nition of physiological age would justify some modification of present conditions. It can never entirely eliminate re- tardation or acceleration and it never should. Briefly to summarize, we may say that the theory of salta- tory development which forms the basis of the argument for the sharply separated division of elementary and secondary education is itself open to question. If, however, its validity be granted, the great variability of the age at which puberty begins precludes any attempt to organize our schools defi- nitely on the basis of the phenomena of adolescence. Finally, even if we grant the validity of the theory of saltatory de- velopment and even if we should assume that the variability in the date and duration of puberty were small enough to permit fairly homogeneous groupings, the age-grade dis- tribution of pupils in the schools would prevent us from defi- nitely organizing the system other than in a general way on the basis of the needs of adolescents. (2) Subject-matter: Theories of saltatory development or of gradual development are not without importance in con- nection with the character of the subject-matter considered appropriate for the various grades of the school. One of the most noticeable results of adherence to the theory of salta- tory development is found in the rather abrupt change from relatively concrete and familiar subject-matter of the ele- mentary school to the relatively abstract and unfamiliar subject-matter of the secondary school. Thus Monroe:1 That the influence of the adolescent factor has been stronger than most others is shown by the fact that foreign languages, science, 1 Monroe, P., Principles of Secondary Education, p. 10. 70 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION and higher mathematics have been made to conform to this dis- tinction, when experience, the conditions in other countries, and the interests of the child would dictate an earlier approach. Certainly one may readily observe that the character of the secondary-school studies, even in the first year of the course, as a whole differ markedly from the character of the subject-matter of the elementary school, even in the last grade of that school. Only a thorough-going acceptance of a theory of saltatory development could justify the abrupt changes in studies which confront the pupil on passing from the last grade of the elementary school to the first grade of the secondary school. The theory of gradual maturing would permit no such sharp separation of subjects of study, but would postulate that the transition from relatively concrete subjects to relatively abstract subjects should be gradual. (3} Methods of teaching: A number of factors combine to make methods of teaching in the secondary school at present noticeably different from those employed in the elementary school, especially the fact that teachers in the two depart- ments ordinarily receive very different training. Problems of method in teaching in the two schools, however, are af- fected in no small degree by the theoretical considerations at present under discussion. It is by no means uncommon to find very radical differences in the methods of teaching justi- fied on the basis of the theory of saltatory development at adolescence. On such grounds we find it argued, for instance, that methods of teaching language, especially foreign lan- guages, when begun in the earlier grades, should be taught in those grades by methods which may be abruptly changed for pupils in the first grade of the high school. A number of factors enter to determine any final judgment concerning the place of the study of foreign language and the methods by which it should be taught. It must be recognized also MENTAL TRAITS OF THE PUPIL 71 that different methods of teaching are appropriate for pupils of different stages of development. Abrupt changes in methods of teaching, however, could be justified only on the basis of a theory of saltatory development. The theory of gradual maturing, while recognizing the need for differences in method of teaching pupils of different stages of develop- ment, insists that the transition in methods must be gradual. Hence it is argued by advocates of that theory that any abrupt change in teaching methods when the pupil passes into the secondary school involves a fundamental error. (4) Discipline and the treatment of pupils: Under exist- ing circumstances important differences are found between methods of discipline and of treating pupils in the elementary school and in the secondary school so that difficult adjust- ments face the pupils on passing from the one to the other. In the elementary school, even in the last grades, pupils are under a maternalistic system of supervision and control, discipline is a matter of rules, and little if any freedom is afforded in studies or in conduct. On entering the secondary school supervision and control are radically changed, reason tends to replace petty rules, and a considerable amount of responsibility is thrown on the pupil for his own conduct and to some extent for his own education. The only possible justification for such a condition of affairs could be found hi the theory that the pupil becomes a radically different being, suddenly endowed with powers never before manifest, be- tween June and September of the same year. This would be an extreme form of the theory of saltatory development. Advocates of that theory have much to answer for in th^ present situation. A theory of gradual maturing would dic- tate that changes in the methods of discipline and of the treatment of children should be gradual. Its acceptance in practice would do much to reform existing conditions in the relation of elementary and secondary education. 72 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION PROBLEMS FOR FURTHER CONSIDERATION 1. Explain how the fallacy of selection may affect the problem of measur- ing the development of a mental trait when averages for different groups at different ages are made the basis for determining development. 2. Take any one set of measurements in Table XXI or Table XXII. Com- pare the rates of change year by year in terms of the percentile incre- ment. 3. From the data given in Tables XXI and XXII, draw graphs of the curve of development of some of the mental traits. 4. Indicate as many phases as you can of current educational theory and practice hi the late elementary- or early high-school grades which show evidence of the influence of a theory of serial or periodic development. 5. Show how those phases of theory and practice would be modified to conform to the theory of continuous and concomitant development. 6. How would the choice of material and methods of teaching plane geometry in the eighth grade differ from those found in the first or second year of the high school on the basis of the theory of serial or periodic development? How would adherence to the theory of contin- uous and concomitant development affect this problem? 7. Why is the questionnaire method of doubtful value in obtaining data concerning the status or development of such phenomena as the rise of altruism, religious convictions, interests in literature, in the opposite sex, etc.? 8. Consider differences in teaching English in the elementary school and in the secondary school. In how far are such differences due possibly to a theory of saltatory development? 9. Indicate ways in which changes in the treatment which others extend to pupils in the first year of the high school may itself account for cer- tain somewhat sudden changes in pupils' attitudes and reactions. 10. On the basis of a theory of gradual development during adolescence how could the work of the high school be better adapted to provide for gradual changes in methods of teaching, etc.? 11. What bearing do the theories of development considered in this chapter have on plans for the reorganization of education? (Cf. Chapter VII). SELECTED REFERENCES Bagley, W. C., The Educative Process, chap, xii, pp. 184-202. Colvin, S. S., An Introduction to High-School Teaching, chap. n. Bonser, F. G., The Reasoning Abilities of Children of the Fourth, Fifth, and Sixth School Grades. Burnham, W. H., " The Study of Adolescence," Pedagogical Seminary, vol. I, pp. 184-95. MENTAL TRAITS OF THE PUPIL 73 Douglass, A. A., " The Junior High School," Fifteenth Yearbook of the Na~ tional Society for the Study of Education, part in, chap. n. Davis, C. O., "Principles and Plans for Reorganizing Secondary Educa- tion, chap, rv of Johnston, C. H. (Editor), High School Education, pp. 69-70. Dewey, J., "Reasoning in Early Childhood," Teachers College Record, vol. xv, pp. 9-15. Dewey, J., How We Think, pp. 65-66. Gilbert, J. A., "Researches on the Mental and Physical Development of School Children," Studies from the Yale Psychological Laboratory, vol. n, pp. 40-100. Hall, G. S., Adolescence. Inglis, A. J., " A Fundamental Problem in the Reorganization of the High School," School Review, vol. xxni, pp. 307-18. King, I., The High School Age, chap, v-vin, pp. 66-124. Kirkpatrick, E. A., Fundamentals of Child Study, especially chap, rv, pp. 247-87. Parker, S. C., Methods of Teaching in High Schools, chap, xin, pp. 314-35. Smedley, F. W., Report of the Development of Child Study and Pedagogical Investigation of the Chicago Public Schools, vol. n, pp. 10-48. Terman, L. M., The Measure of Intelligence, chaps, i, n, v, vi. Thorndike, E. L., The Original Nature of Man, chap, xvi, pp. 245-69. Thorndike, E. L., Educational Psychology, vol. m, chap, xn, pp. 270-80. Thorndike, E. L., Notes on Child Study, especially pp. 40-153. Wallin, J. E. W., Psycho-Motor Norms for Practical Diagnosis, Psycho- logical Monographs, vol. xxn, no. 2, especially chap. n. Whipple, G. M., Manual of Physical and Mental Tests, passim, especially part n (revised edition). Whipple, G. M., " Psychology and Hygiene of Adolescence," chap, vn, Monroe, P. (Editor), Principles of Secondary Education, pp. 246-312. Extended bibliography on adolescence; Baldwin, B. T., Physical Growth and School Progress, Bureau of Education Bulletin (1914), no. 10, pp. 189-212. CHAPTER III THE SECONDARY-SCHOOL PUPIL: INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 21. Importance of recognizing individual differences. Within recent years two factors have tended to emphasize the importance of recognizing individual differences among secondary-school pupils: (1) the increasing heterogeneity of the secondary-school population; (2) the development of the psychology of individual differences. (1) Until toward the close of the nineteenth century pupils enrolled in the secondary schools of the country constituted a roughly homogeneous group in the sense that they were boys and girls from relatively well-to-do American families, who for the most part looked forward to a cultural educa- tion in the high school which would prepare them for college and for the higher walks of life. The past quarter century, however, has marked a period in the development of second- ary education characterized by the expansion of the second- ary school so as to provide education for classes of pupils never before represented in large numbers in the secondary school. The result has been a very greatly increased hetero- geneity in the high-school population, and consequently a demand for increased attention to the varied capacities, in- terests, and probable future activities of secondary-school pupils, and to the differentiated needs of society. (2) Within the past decade educational psychology has found no more fruitful field than that of the psychology of individual differences, and in no other field have the results of psychological investigation contributed more to our edu- cational theory and practice. It has, of course, always been INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 75 recognized that individuals differ each from the other in physical and mental traits. Only recently, however, have we begun to realize the full meaning of that fact and the im- plications for secondary education. It is probably no exag- geration to say that the adaptation of secondary education on the one hand to meet the needs of different capacities, interests, and probable futures among pupils, and on the other hand to meet the differentiated needs of society, is the most important problem of secondary education at the present time. Some idea of the great range of abilities among secondary- school pupils may be gained from an examination of the con- ditions indicated in Tables XXIII-XXIV. When we note that high-school pupils who are engaged in the study of algebra may differ so widely in their abilities to perform the ordinary operations of arithmetic that some are from three to four times as capable as others in addition, sub- traction, multiplication, and division, and almost immeasur- ably more efficient in handling abstract examples and rea- soning as measured by the Courtis Tests, the importance of recognizing individual differences in capacities is impressed on us. 22. The distribution of individual differences. In consid- ering differences among pupils of any given group with refer- ence to the amounts of a trait possessed, there is always an unconscious tendency to separate the individuals and class- ify them in more or less discrete groups, e.g., short, medium- sized, and tall boys; young, average-aged, and older pupils — with an assumption (again commonly unconscious) that those groups may be rather sharply differentiated. Such procedure is usually fallacious and is as objectionable and productive of evil results in practice as it is unsound and un- justified in theory. It is a fact of importance that in the case of most if not all traits having bearing on secondary edu- 76 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION TABLE XXIII. INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN SEVENTH AND EIGHTH GRADE PUPILS * Trait Minimum Maximum Range Maximum-r- Minimum Age in months 140.5 220 79.5 I 6 Height in inches 54 67.5 13.5 1 3 Grip in kilograms 20 45.5 25.5 2.3 Cancellations, number of A's. . . . Addition, number of problems.. . Spelling, per cent right 39 0 20 95 9 94 56 9 74 2.4 ? 4.7 Associations, number right 0 21 21 ? Auditory memory, per cent 38.3 90 51.7 2.4 Visual memory, per cent 46.6 96.3 51.7 2.1 * Chambers, W. G., "Individual Differences in Grammar Grade Children," Journal of Educational Psychology, vol. i, pp. 61-76. TABLE XXIV. DIFFERENCES IN ARITHMETICAL ABILITIES IN FIRST-YEAR HIGH-SCHOOL PUPILS (COURTIS TESTS)! Trait and Test Minimum Maximum Range Maximum -T- Minimum 1. Addition 35 115 80 3.29 2. Subtraction 25 105 80 4.20 3. Multiplication 25 85 60 3.40 4. Division 25 105 80 4.20 5 Copying figures 5 205 200 41.00 6. Speed reasoning, attempted .... Speed reasoning, right 1 0 13 10 12 10 13.00 ? 7. Abstract examples, attempted. . Abstract examples, right 7 0 19 19 12 19 2.71 ? 8. Reasoning, examples attempted. Reasoning, examples right 0 0 8 7 8 7 ? ? f Compiled and arranged from Courtis, S. A., in Report of the Committee on School Inquiry, Board of Estimate and Apportionment, City of New York, vol. I, pp. 434, 440-44. cation, sharply differentiated groupings of pupils must be considered as arbitrary divisions which may facilitate or- ganization and administration, but may also lead to bane- ful educational results. 77 If we consider, for example, the age of pupils in any grade of the secondary school we find that the term " average age " means little, and that the classification of pupils as young, average-aged, and old is even less intelligible. Thus in the following table classification on such a basis would mean little. TABLE XXV. AGE DISTRIBUTION OF 949 PUPILS ENTERING THE PUBLIC HIGH SCHOOLS OF NEW YORK CITY IN 1906* Boys Girls Both . Number Per cent Number Per cent Number Per cent 11.5-12.0 2 0.6 0 0.0 2 0.2 12.0-12.5 2 0.6 2 0.4 4 0.4 12.5-13.0 13 3.6 13 2.2 26 2.7 13.0-13.5 45 12.4 73 12.4 118 12.4 13.5-14.0 55 15.2 85 14.5 140 14.8 14.0-14.5 55 15.2 116 19.8 171 18.0 14.5-15.0 74 20.4 105 17.9 179 18.9 15.0-15.5 38 10.5 87 14.8 125 13.2 15.5-16.0 35 9.7 53 9.0 88 9.3 16.0-16.5 24 6.6 37 6.3 61 6.4 16.5-17.0 12 3.3 12 2.0 24 2.5 17.0-17.5 6 1.6 3 0.5 9 1.0 17.5-18.0 1 0.3 1 0.2 2 0.2 Median 14 yrs., 6 mos. 14 yrs., 6 mos. 14 yrs., 6 mos. M.D. 9 mos. 8 mos. 8 mos. * Compiled and arranged from data given by Van Denburg, J. K., Causes of the Elim- ination of Students in Public Secondary Schools of New York City, p. 23. The distribution of various amounts of any trait follows regular laws and is not haphazard and hit-or-miss. It has been found that in the case of variable physical and mental traits, where a sufficiently large number of individuals is measured and no selective agency is involved, the numbers of individuals possessing different amounts of the trait 78 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION measured tend to be distributed according to the laws of probability. Such laws imply that between the lowest amount of the trait which is found in an individual at one extreme, and the highest amount which is found in an individual at the other extreme, individuals will be found possessing differ- ent intervening amounts of the trait; that the greatest number of individuals manifesting any given amount of the trait will be found at a point half-way between the two ex- tremes; that the number of individuals possessing various amounts of the trait increases as the mid-point is approached from either extreme according to a fixed mathematical law. Such a distribution is illustrated in the following tables. TABLE XXVI. DISTKIBUTION OF VARIOUS AMOUNTS OF HEIGHT IN THE CASE OF 1171 AMERICAN SIXTEEN- YEAR-OLD GIRLS, COMPARED WITH AN APPROXIMATE THEORETIC DISTRIBUTION* Actual distribution 1171 cases Theoretic distribution 1024 cases // ' hi ' t' t Number Per cent Per cent Number 136-139 2 0.2 0.1 1 140-143 12 1.0 1.0 10 144-147 54 4.6 4.4 45 148-151 159 13.6 11.7 120 152-155 280 23.9 20.5 210 156-159 310 26.5 24.6 252 160-163 218 18.6 20.5 210 164-167 102 8.7 11.7 120 168-171 31 2.6 4.4 45 172-175 2 0.2 1.0 10 176-179 1 0.1 0.1 1 139-177 1171 100.0 100.0 1024 * Figures for the actual distribution compiled from data given by Burk, F. (after Boas). "The Growth of Children in Height and Weight," American Journal qf Psychology, vol. IX (1897-98), p. 268. INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 79 TABLE XXVII. DISTKIBUTION OF AEITHMETICAL ABILITIES (ABSTRACT EXAMPLES — COURTIS TEST No. 7) nsr THE CASE OF 996 HIGH-SCHOOL PUPILS IN NEW YORK CITY* Actual Distribution 996 Cases Theoretic Distribution 1021f Cases Number of Examples Done Correctly Number Per cent Per cent Number 0-1 4 0.4 0.1 1 2-3 15 1.5 1.0 10 4-5 54 5.5 4.4 45 6-7 108 10.9 11.7 120 8-9 206 20.9 20.5 210 10-11 212 21.5 24.6 252 12-13 203 20.6 20.5 210 14-15 123 12.5 11.7 120 16-17 . 58 4.9 4.4 45 18-19 13 1.3 1.0 10 (20-51) (0) (0.0) 0.1 .1 0-19 996 100.0 100.0 1024 * Actual distribution compiled from Courtis, S. A., in Report of Committee on School In- quiry, Board of Estimate and Apportionment, City of New York, vol. i, p. 434. Such tables as these may readily be plotted and expressed in the form of graphs in which the amounts of the traits are measured along the base line from the lowest amount on the left to the highest amount on the right, and the number of cases for each amount are measured by the heights of the vertical lines or columns. (Figures B and C.) The same general law of distribution is found more or less applicable to grades in the subjects of study in the secondary school, although a number of factors tend to make such dis- tributions complex. Some sample distributions of high-school grades will illustrate the operation of the law. (Table xxvin.) 80 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION Continuous line ( — Broken line I - - - i. i. ) for the actual distribution - -) for the theoretic distribution ,-> 26 «r •H 10 o -v 5 Cm. us ftj ^47 /-ff 'f* IS~9 /63 i(,7 ni nf /?? FIGURE B. ILLUSTRATING THE DISTRIBUTION, GIVEN IN TABLE XXV!1 OF THE HEIGHTS OF 1171 SIXTEEN- YEAR-OLD GIRLS Continuous line (- ••••-•' ) for the actual distribution Broken line ( -----) for the theoretic distribution, i* \'' t ,•• <-K 1C o 15 S/0 O Aa o-i j-J 4-f ' 6-7 ' *-) { lo-n '/1-/31 >V-/r tt-ll 'it'l?~ii-lT FIGURE C. ILLUSTRATING THE DISTRIBUTION OF ARITHMETICAL ABILITIES, GIVEN IN TABLE XXVII, OF 996 HIGH-SCHOOL PUPILS INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 81 TABLE XXVffl. DISTRIBUTION OF HIGH-SCHOOL GBJU>ES* Percentile English grades 344 pupils Madison (Wit.) High School Mathematics grades 181 pupils Madison (Wis.) High School Average grades 472 pupils eight high schools grade Number Per cent Number Per cent Number Per cent 70-71 1 0.4 0 0.0 1 0.2 72-74 4 1.6 4 2.2 0 0.0 75-77 17 7.0 14 7.7 18 3.8 78-80 42 17.2 25 13.8 80 17.0 81-83 50 20.5 26 14.4 92 19.5 84-86 51 20.9 34 18.8 101 21.4 87-89 43 17.6 28 15.5 86 18.2 90-92 24 9.9 25 13.8 64 13.6 93-95 11 4.5 21 11.6 27 5.7 96-98 1 0.4 4 2.2 3 0.6 99-100 0 0.0 Total 244 100.0 181 100.0 472 100.0 * Tables and the following graphs compiled from data given in Dearborn, W. F., The Relative Standing of Pupils in the High Schools and in the University, Bulletin of the Uni- versity of Wisconsin, no. 312, Plates V, A, C, I, A. These figures are reduced to the form of graphs as fol- lows. -20 FIGURE D. ILLUSTRATING THE DISTRIBUTION OF GRADES IN ENGLISH, GIVEN IN TABLE XXVIII 82 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION 7S-S-0' FIGURE E. ILLUSTRATING THE DISTRIBUTION OF GRADES EN MATHEMATICS, GIVEN IN TABLE XXVIII 20 JS FIGURE F. ILLUSTRATING THE DISTRIBUTION OF AVERAGE HIGH- SCHOOL GRADES, GIVEN IN TABLE XXVIII In stating the law governing the normal distribution of various amounts of a given trait, two conditions were made — that normal distribution wilj not appear if too few cases are taken to permit the operation of the law of chance and that the distribution will not be " normal " if any selective factor, is involved. If a small number of individuals is measured different amounts of the trait will be scattered irregularly, sometimes with gaps where no individual's record is found. This is illustrated in the following table and figure. INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 83 TABLE XXIX. DISTRIBUTION OF THE GRADES OF 26 PUPILS IN HISTORY: FIRST YEAR OF HIGH SCHOOL* Gradei 70-74 75-79 80-84 Number oj Case* 6 2 0 Grade* 85-89 90-94 95-100 Number of Cases 5 6 7 * Compiled from Gray, C. T., Variations in the Grades oj High-School Pupils, p. 12. la > i £5 t4 vS 2z 1 75- 80- 85- 90- 95- 74 79 84 89 94 100 FIGURE G. ILLUSTRATING THE DISTRIBUTION GIVEN IN TABLE XXIX Such is the usual condition in any recitation group in the secondary school, and an irregular distribution must be ex- pected in most pupil groups where less than one hundred pupils are involved. The greater the number of pupils con- sidered, other things being equal, the greater the likelihood that the distribution will approximate the normal. The second factor which conditions the operation of the law of probability distribution is the factor of selection Whenever any group of pupils is selected on the basis of the amount of a given trait possessed the result is a lop-sided or " skewed " form of distribution in which one or both ends of the distribution are lopped off. Thus, if the pupils whose records are represented in Table XXVIII and Figure F were separated into three groups on the basis of their average grades, with the dividing lines at 80 per' cent and 90 per 84 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION cent (assuming that the grading really represented abilities), we should then have three groups in which the distributions would appear as in Table XXX and Figure H. Theoreti- cally something of this sort takes place through our system of promotion, except that the division is commonly in two divisions only. However, owing to the inadequacies of our grading and promotion systems the separation is always in- complete so that the overlapping of distributions is always great. This is clearly seen from the distributions of arith- metical abilities in the various grades of the high school as measured by Courtis.1 TABLE XXX Ca«*a Grade Wo. °;o < 70-71 1 0.2 (Gjtadea 70-60 C _ I (No.CuJea 99 £ 72-74 0 0.0 ( j> Coaea 81.0 (-- — --- ( ( 75-77 18 3.8 < 73-80 80 17.0 (Grades 81-89 \ _81-_83_ . 9.2. _19.-°. Il(NoCa8ea 279 ( Q^.QQ 101 21.4 /:]t Cases 69.1 ( " ( 87-89 96 18.2 (Grades 90-93 ( 90-92 64 13. C XII . \ so 45 *40 i j* •30 ^ •H »u Jf *M w 0 *«• o- 10 • s • • i C F r i 1 C-t-aAe o-;i9 1 3 0-33 -fo-f^ fo-rs **• " |I° ^ "> T fe' 5. *T ' * «- « '. *- °J^ * • ^» J^lj- - - r 1 * i en • ' ff) \ Median of W.) 24 33 46 29 31 27 22 29 ! Compiled and arranged from Mayo, M. J., The Menial Capacity oj the American Negro, especially pp. 26-45. W. = white pupils: C. = negroes. From this table it may be noted that while the white pupils invariably show a higher average standing than the negro, the difference in the medians ranges only from 4 to 8, and that for all subjects the averages indicate a difference of four points. It is further to be noted that about thirty INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 95 per cent of the negroes reach or surpass the median record for the white pupils. In view of these facts it cannot be said that the white pupils in the high school excel the selected negroes found there to an extent to justify any appreciable differ- ences in accomplishment or expectation in high-school work. If this is true when comparing whites and negroes, it is, of course, probably even more in point when the comparison is made between the various white stocks. 27. Individual differences due to social heredity. One important group of environmental forces includes all those social customs, conventions, institutions, modes of thought, action, and feeling to which the individual falls heir by virtue of being born into any given society or social grouping. This set of forces we may well differentiate from other environ- mental forces under the term social heredity. An impor- tant factor causing individual differences in any society, so- cial heredity is especially important in such a country as the United States where large groups of individuals of widely differing forms of social heredity form constituent elements of one larger social group. According to the census of 1910 the distribution of popu- lation in the United States was as follows: TABLE XXXIV* 1 Number Per cent Number Per cent Native white 68 389 104 744 Native parentage 49,488,441 53.8 Foreign-born parentage.. . 18,900,663 20.6 Foreign-born white 13 343 583 14 5 Negro 9 828 294 10 7 All others — Indians, etc . . . 411,285 0.4 Total 91 972 266 100.0 * Thirteenth Centus (1910), vol. i, p. 132. 96 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION It is a fact not without significance for secondary educa- tion that only a little more than one half of the population of the United States is of native white parentage and that the proportion has constantly decreased for a number of decades. This may be noted from the following table. TABLE XXXV* I860 (per cent) 1860 (per cent) 1870 (per cent) 1880 (per cent) 1890 (per cent) 1900 (per cent) 1910 (per cent) Foreign-born 9.7 12.0 14.2 13.8 13.1 16.5 14.5 18.3 13.4 20.6 14.5 20.6 Native: foreign-born parentage Total foreign par- entage 28.0 29.6 32.8 34.0 35.1 * Thirteenth Census (1910), vol. i, p. 132. This condition apparently more or less affects the number of children of various ages who continue their education into the secondary school. TABLE XXXVI. SHOWING THE PEBCENTAGES OF CHILDREN OF VARIOUS AGE GROUPS ATTENDING SCHOOL — NATIVE AND FOREIGN STOCKS: 1909-10* Native White Yean of Age Total Native Parentage Foreign or Mixed Parentage Foreign-born whites Negro 12 93.1 92.0 95.6 90.2 70.1 13 91.9 90.9 94.2 87.7 68.4 14 84.7 85.3 83.1 71.6 62.3 15 71.5 75.0 63.5 46.2 53.9 16 53.7 58.9 41.8 23.7 41.5 17 38.0 42.9 26.7 12.2 29.0 18 25.1 28.6 16.9 6.8 17.9 * Thirteenth Census (1910), vol. I, p. 1000. INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 97 It is, of course, in the field of derived and acquired in- terests, attitudes, ideals, customs, standards, modes of thought, action, and feeling, that we may expect to find the greatest differences among secondary-school pupils due to differences in social heredity. It is probable that English, American, Russian, Italian, French, Hebrew, and other races do not differ materially in original tendencies and ca- pacities. It is obvious, however, that they do differ materi- ally in acquired interests, attitudes, and the like. In general we may say that individual differences among secondary- school pupils due to biological heredity are relatively unim- portant, but that individual differences due to social heredity are great and important. The greater the number of groups of differing social heredity combined in any one society and the greater the differences in the customs, ideals, standards, modes of thought, action, and feeling of the various groups thus combined, the greater the individual differences we may expect to find due to the factor of social heredity and the more important they become. In 1850 the population of the United States, while by no means homogeneous, nevertheless comprised a relatively small number of differ- ent nationalities, and those nationalities were for the most part such as could be classified as " English-speaking " or, at least, as in general represented the social ideals, etc., of Northern Europe. Within the past half-century or less that condition has been modified rapidly, as may be seen from Table XXXVII. Division of the foreign-born population into English- speaking and non-English-speaking groups is here made not merely to emphasize the language factor, important though it is, but also because such groupings indicate in the case of the English-speaking population social heredity which is roughly homogeneous and similar to the basic American stock, and in the case of the non-English-speaking popula- 98 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION TABLE XXXVII. DISTRIBUTION OF THE FOREIGN-BORN POPULATION * 18SO 1870 1890 1910 United States: English-speaking.. . Non-English speaking 66.3 33.7 56.0 44.0 42.4 57.6 28.1 71.9 Massachusetts: English-speaking. . Non-English speaking 95.2 4.8 93.4 6.6 71.7 28.3 47.5 52.5 * Compiled and arranged from data given in the Thirteenth Census (1910). tion, forms of social heredity which differ from that of the basic American stock and are decidedly heterogeneous. In the one case the integration of American society is relatively easy: in the other it is very difficult. In the case of the English-speaking population the general stimulus of life hi American society may, perhaps, be relied upon to contribute extensively to the development of that degree of homogene- ity, of unity and unanimity, necessary for the permanence of American institutions. In the case of widely differenti- ated foreign stocks such as are represented by the non- English-speaking groups, it is probable that the school must be relied on to a much greater extent, involving a longer period of education and an education which should aim definitely toward the integration of large groups of different forms of social heredity. It has frequently been thought that the problems arising out of immigration are concerned largely with elementary education. Important as those problems are for elementary education they are by no means confined to it. Numerous important problems are also involved for secondary edu- cation. It has long been recognized that some of the grav- est problems arising out of immigration center around the second generation of aliens. The first generations of aliens INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES bring with them from their native lands ideals, standards, habits of thought, feeling, and action, which, to be sure, differ from our own and from each other, but which are, nevertheless, good ideals, standards, and habits for the most part. Good or bad they are controlling forces in the lives of immigrants. The-second generation abandon the standards, ideals, and habits of their parents and frequently fail to replace them with American traits. This is the group which tends in increasing numbers to reach the secondary school and it forms a larger group than is generally recognized. Thus in 1908 it was found that 55.7 per cent of the pupils in the high schools of New York City were of foreign parentage, and that more than fifty different countries were represented by high-school pupils.1 In the following table are presented figures showing the parentage of school children in Worcester, Massachusetts, for two decades. TABLE XXXVTH* Parentt born in 1895 1900 1905 1910 1915 United States 7,183 8,576 8,703 8,424 9,486 Canada 1 230 1,752 1,356 1 268 1 440 Ireland 3 136 3339 2952 2502 2490 England 815 923 825 760 833 Sweden 1 684 2555 2837 2647 2 716 Russia 321 713 1,237 2031 3 526 Italy 156 258 569 1 150 Finland 117 170 335 527 All others 886 1,002 1,090 1 254 1 617 Totals 15,255 19,133 19,428 19790 23 785 United States 47.1% 44.8% 448% 426% 399% All others 52.9% 55.2% 55.2% 57.4% 60.1% * Sixty-eighth Annual Report of the Public Schools of Worcester, Massachusetts (1916), p. 555. 1 Van Denburg, J. K., Causes of Elimination of Students in Public Secondary Schools of New York City, pp. 32-38. 100 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION Such figures as those given in this table (and the situation is by no means extreme in Worcester) suggest the impor- tance of recognizing differences among school children in social heredity. They emphasize the importance of some phases of the work of the secondary school which are de- signed to operate as integrating forces. 28. Individual differences due to environment. It is un- fortunately true that pupils receiving the benefits of sec- ondary education are selected on the basis of economic and social status as well as, if not more than, on the basis of in- tellectual fitness. It is also unfortunately true that for many pupils who do attend the secondary school, conditions of the home and community environment are such as to handicap them seriously in their studies. The complexity of environ- mental conditions precludes any satisfactory analysis other than for special localities. Here we have three studies which afford us more or less knowledge. Holley 1 made a study of the pupils in the Decatur, Illi- nois, High School, dividing 198 families investigated into three groups as follows: Group I: those from which all the older children had completed the high-school course (78 families, 72 per cent of 334 children who had secured a high- school education); Group II: those from which none of the older children had completed the high-school course (59 families, 57 per cent of the 308 children who had not finished high school); Group III: those in which some of the older children had graduated from the high school, while some had not graduated. By the questionnaire method Groups I and II were compared with the following results: 1 Holley, C. E., The Influence of Family Income and Other Factors on High-School Attendance. (Pamphlet published by the University of Illinois, School of Education, Seminary in Educational Administration.) Cf. Holley, C. E., "The Relationship between Persistence in School and Home Condi- tions," Fifteenth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, port n. 101 Environmental Circumstance Group I Group II a. Oration of father | j } | fc Median years edn»- lion of parents c. Yearly income (me- dian) $2,000 $1,350 Monthly rental (me- dian) 27.50 20.00 d. Good magazines Frequently Infrequently Books in library (me- 271 83 dian) While it is clear that economic status is an important factor in determining whether, in the community that we studied, a child shall or shall not receive a high school education, it does not follow that economic status is directly correlated with intellectual ability. In so far as mental ability is measured by standing in high school subjects, the differences in ability between children of the two groups are insignificant. The average semester's grade for children of Group I was 85.1 per cent; for children of Group H, 84 per cent. A difference so slight as this could justify only the conclusion that, measured by this standard, the two groups are of approximately equal ability. On this last point raised by Holley we must remember that if economic and other environmental conditions operate to exclude poorer children from the secondary school, then those poorer children who do go to the secondary school probably represent a somewhat higher selection of poorer children. Van Denburg's study of conditions found in the case of high-school pupils in New York City indicate conditions somewhat different from those found in Decatur by Holley. The monthly rentals paid by the families of 420 children entering the high schools in 1908 were distributed as given in Table XXXIX. 102 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION TABLE XXXIX* Monthly rental Per cent of pupils Monthly rental Per cent of pupils $10-$15 45 $40-$45 6 20- 25 26 50- 55 2 30- 35 12 60- 65 2 70-150 7 * Van Denburg, J. K., Causes of the Elimination of Students in Public Secondary Schoolf of New York City, pp. 79-83. On the whole the economic status of these pupils (so far as is shown by the monthly rental) seems to be only a slight factor in the determination of length of stay in the high school. . . . We saw in an earlier section that children remain through the elementary school and enter high school from homes of the most meager finan- cial resources. We now find that such children remain in high school as long or nearly as long as do children whose parents pay $40 or more a month for rent.1 Van Denburg also found that 827 fathers of high school pupils were engaged in 126 different occupations, an average of about seven to each occupation listed and seven occupa- tions listed enrolling twenty-five or more fathers.2 Of older brothers and sisters 556 were engaged in 164 listed occupa- tions other than study in school or college. Of those, two occupations only engaged twenty-five or more brothers or sisters.3 The occupations of fathers are summarized by Van Denburg. (Table XL.) The figures shown in Table XL may be compared with the figures obtained by King for 1123 high-school pupils in three cities in Iowa. (Table XLI.) With references to most categories the likenesses for the 1 Van Denburg, J. K., op. cit., pp. 113-14. 2 Ibid., pp. 39-48. 8 Ibid., pp. 69-68. These and other quotations from Van Denburg are made with the permission of the publishers, Teachers College Bureau of Publications. INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 103 TABLE XL. OCCUPATIONS OF FATHERS (NEW YORK CITY)* Occupations Total number High School 1906 (per cent) Population 1900 (per cent) Professional 36 4.4 2.3 Semi-professional 36 4.4 3.7 Artisans — contractors 150 18.1 16.4 Federal and city employees . . . Clerical helpers 61 52 7.4 6.3 3.6 11.2 Office workers, agents 106 12.8 7.9 Manufacturer and trade 227 27.5 28.1 Printing trades 35 4 2 2 5 Personal service 41 4.9 7.7 Transportation 46 5.5 6 6 Factory — labor 36 4.4 10.0 Total 826 100 0 100 0 * Van Denburg, J. K., op. cit., pp. 44, 128. two types of communities are greater than one would ex- pect. The greatest difference, of course, is found in the case of agriculture in the lowan cities. (Table XLI.) 29. Individual differences in interests, etc. Individual differences among secondary-school pupils due to differ- ences in interests, life aims, school motives, and the like, are obviously important factors in the work of the secondary school. They are, to be sure, the resultants of differences in heredity and environment, but deserve special attention here as important elements determining both theory and prac- tice in the secondary school. The multiplexity and com- plexity of those differences preclude any extensive analysis. However, the occupational preferences of secondary-school pupils and their attitudes toward school work are important enough to justify brief consideration.1 1 For some excellent studies see King, I.f The High-School Age, chaps. x-xn. 104 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION TABLE XLL FATHERS' OCCUPATIONS OF 1123 PUPILS IN IOWA, 1913, AND OF 1004 IN NEW YORK CITY, 1906* Occupations Iowa New York City Number Per cent Per cent Number Agriculture 151 268 156 912 75 93 19 30 40 18 10 51 63 17 40 13.46 23.88 13.80 8.20 6.69 8.29 1.70 2.68 3.57 1.60 .89 4.54 5.62 1.51 3.57 0.00 22.62 14.80 10.57 4.59 3.60 3.60 5.19 6.09 4.09 3.50 3.60 8.86 1.30 7.57 0 227 150 106 46 36 36 52 61 41 35 36 89 13 76 Trade and Manufacturing .... Artisans Middlemen and office workers. Transportation Professional Semi-professional Clerical City and federal employees . . . Personal service Printing trades Unclassified Blank Retired Dead Total 1,123 100.00 100.00 1,004 _ * King, I., The High-School Age, p. 159. Quoted with the permission of the author and his publishers, The Bobbs-Merrill Company. Van Denburg secured data from 382 boys and 620 girls entering the high schools of New York City in answer to the question: " What do you expect to do for a living? " Of the boys 156 (41 per cent) made no choice, 15 (4 per cent) made a partial choice, 211 (55 per cent) made a somewhat definite choice. Of the girls 316 (51 per cent) made no choice, 26 (about 4 per cent) expected to go to college, and 278 (45 per cent) made a somewhat definite choice.1 The distribution of occupations was very wide and scattering. Occupations chosen by two or more per cent of those who expressed a choice are shown in Table XLII. 1 Van Denburg, J. K., op. cit., pp. 49-57. INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES TABLE XTJT* 105 Boys Girh i Occupations No. Per cent Occupations No. Per cent Architect 7 3.3 Bookkeeper. . . 9 3 2 Business 36 17 0 Designer 6 2 1 Electrician 9 4.2 Dressmaker. . . . 7 2.5 Engineer 5 2.3 Musician 7 2 5 Engineer, civil 39 18.4 Stenographer . . . 46 16 9 Engineer, electrical 27 12 7 Teacher, school. 167 60 0 Engineer, mechanical 5 2.3 Teacher, music. 12 4.3 Law 24 11 4 Scattering. . 24 8 6 Medicine 7 3 3 Teacher 11 5 2 Miscellaneous trade 8 3 7 Miscellaneous construction. Scattering 14 19 6.6 9.0 Total 211 100 0 Total . 278 100 0 * Van Denburg, J. K., op. cit., pp. 51, 55. Slight percentage inaccuracies in original tables tin corrected. King compares the figures for the pupils in the high schools of New York City with those for three fairly large high schools in Iowa and also gives figures for three small high schools in Iowa. (Table XLIII.) The fact that approximately one half of the pupils enter- ing the New York City high schools were as yet undecided as to their future vocations is indicative of the fact that the work of the elementary school has not been able to develop life interests, and that in most of those cases such dominant interests will be formed during attendance at the secondary school. Hence emphasis is placed on the work of the first years of the secondary-school course as affording opportu- nity for the discovery of interests and their cultivation. King found that more than three quarters of pupils in all grades of three Iowa high schools had decided on definite vocations.1 1 King, I., The High-School Age, p. 162. 106 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION TABLE XLIH. VOCATIONS CHOSEN BY PUPILS IN THE HIGH SCHOOLS OF IOWA AND OF NEW YORK CITY* Occupations chosen Three large high schools in Iowa Three small high schools in Iowa New York City high schools Boys Girls Boys Girls Boys Girls Teaching 13 94 16 32 34 261 '85 -24 3 4 23 1 17 1 35 69 10 6 11 78 4 24 1 168 55 2 Engineering Stenography and bookkeeping Law Farming Nursing Medicine 30 33 7 36 1 2 3 2 3 1 4 19 i Business 3 Music Dentistry 8 8 16 8 8 5 '4 Pharmacy Salesman Mechanic Army and navy Labor Domestic science 22 8 11 6 1 5 "e Housekeeping ... ' i 2 3 1 Librarian Physical training 1 5 6 6 Civil service Office work • • • "7 2 "2 Architecture Millinery Totals 323 459 62 85 180 260 * King, I., The High-School Age, pp. 163-64. Van Denburg and King have collected valuable data con- cerning the attitudes assumed by high school pupils toward the work of the secondary school. Their figures are- pre- sented hi the following tables : INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 107 TABLE XLIV. PUPILS' ESTIMATES OF THE VALUE OF A HIGH- SCHOOL COURSE* a. New York City: "Do you consider a high-school education necessary for the realization of your plans for the future?" Numbers Per cents Total Yes Doubtful No Yes Doubtful No Boys 382 620 1,002 215 255 470 66 135 201 101 230 331 56 41 47 17 22 20 27 37 33 Girls Both b. lowan Cities : " Are four years in high school necessary for your purpose? ' Numbers Per cents Total Yes Uncertain No Yes Uncertain No Boys 534 533 1,067 354 336 690 87 84 171 93 113 206 66 63 66 16 16 16 18 21 18 Girls Both * Van Denburg, J. K., op. cit., pp. 69-72; King, I., op. cit., p. 166. TABLE XLV. PUPILS' INTENTIONS OF STAYING FOUB YEABS IN HIGH SCHOOL f a. New York City: "Do you intend to complete your high-school course?" Numbers Per cents Total Yes Doubtful No Yes Doubtful No Boys 382 620 1,002 207 316 523 115 179 294 60 125 185 54 51 52 30 29 29 16 20 19 Girls Both t Van Denburg, J. K., loc. cit.; King, I., loc. cit. 108 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION b. lowan Cities: "Do you intend to spend four years in high school?" Numbers Per cents Total Yes Uncertain No Yes Uncertain No Boys 548 614 1,162 470 534 1,004 34 33 67 44 47 91 85 87 87 7 5 5 8 8 8 Girls Both TABLE XLVL* lowan Cities: "Is a college education necessary for your purpose?" Numbers Per cents Total Yes Uncertain No Yes Uncertain No Boys 537 617 1,154 337 297 634 87 114 201 113 206 319 63 48 55 16 19 17 21 33 28 Girls Both * King, I., loc. cit. 30. Individual differences due to sex. In the United States it is the general practice to group boys and girls to- gether for purposes of administration and instruction, excep- tions to this practice being common only in private second- ary schools and in certain large cities. In most foreign coun- tries the segregation of boys and girls is the general rule in the secondary schools. Whether coeducation or segregation be the practice important problems for secondary education arise out of the differences due to sex. In the case of segrega- tion such problems are somewhat less complex than in the case of coeducation and less concern the individual teacher. In the case of coeducation those problems affect every phase INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 109 of the work of the secondary school. It is, therefore, neces- sary to consider briefly certain individual differences in physical, mental, and social traits among secondary school pupils due to difference in sex. Differences in physical traits between men and women or boys and girls, due to the sex factor, are too obvious to re- quire extended discussion. It suffices to note a few of the more important phenomena. Thus we may note from Tables IV, V, XI, and XIII that girls apparently approach the max- imum of growth in many physical traits from a year to two years before boys. From Tables IV and V we may note that from about 11.5 to about 14.5 years of age girls apparently exceed boys in height and weight, although boys excel girls in height and weight at all other ages. Likewise we may note that with reference to pubescence and adolescence girls begin to mature a year or two before boys with resultant character- istic differences. One should not fail to recognize that differ- ences due to such physical phenomena are of especial im- portance in connection with secondary education, however much or however little they may affect elementary or higher education. Likewise one should not fail to note that these physical traits are but slightly amenable to education and that as far as their direct effects are concerned secondary ed- ucation must be guided rather than guide. This is not so true, however, of the indirect effects of physical traits which may, and probably should be, modified by education. Differences in mental traits due to sex may best be con- sidered under two separate heads: (1) mental processes, such as association, memory, etc.; (2) interests, attitudes, etc. Data dealing with mental processes have already been pre- sented in Tables XIX, XX, XXI, and XXII. In Table XIX data indicate that there is apparently little if any difference between boys and girls in their ability to discriminate weights. In Table XX data apparently indicate that boys excel girls 110 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION in their ability to react quickly to a given stimulus. In Tables XXI and XXII the data indicate a practical identity of ability on the part of boys and girls in association, mem- ory, etc. Such differences as are found in any case are negli- gible and probably less than differences due to the imper- fection of the measurements. Essentially the same result* (inappreciable differences) have been found in the great majority of investigations of mental processes. Thus Thomp- son measured men and women students in the University of Chicago in forty-five mental traits. In twenty-one of those traits the men excelled the women by greater or less amounts. In twenty-one traits the women excelled and in four traits they were approximately equal in ability. In the few cases where the superiority was marked on either side previous general training was quite probable. On the average the per cent of men reaching or exceeding the median for the women was fifty, thus indicating a general equality.1 Courtis measured 1235 boys and 1168 girls in the seventh grade of the schools of New York City in speed multiplica- tion and in speed reasoning with the results indicated in Table XLVII. Such differences justify the statement made by Courtis:2 In view of the extent to which the sex groups overlap, the fact of a small difference in the average scores of the groups need not be considered in planning the course of study. The same opinion is expressed by Thorndike:3 The most important characteristic of these differences is their small amount. The individual differences within one sex so enor- 1 Thompson, Helen B., Psychological Norms in Men and Women, Univer- sity of Chicago Contributions to Philosophy, vol. 4, no. 1. Data here taken from the resume by Thorndike, E. L., Educational Psychology, vol. in, pp. 178-79. 8 Courtis, S. A., loc. cit. 3 Thorndike, E. L., Educational Psychology, vol. in, p. 184. Quoted with permission. INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 111 TABLE XL VII. ARITHMETICAL ABILITIES OF BOYS AND GIRLS COMPARED * (A) (B) Test 3 (Courtis) Test 6 (Courtis) Per cent making Per cent making the score the score Score Score Attempts Rights Boys Girls Boys Girls Boys Girl* 5 .1 .0 0 .1 .1 2.7 4.1 15 .9 .5 1 .5 .5 9.2 15.0 25 11.7 6.7 2 4.5 5.6 16.3 23.4 85 36.6 31.0 3 13.1 14.7 19.8 20.2 45 32.4 36.9 4 19.3 19.7 19.8 16.9 55 10.5 15 a 5 23.2 23.4 15.9 11.3 65 6.2 7.0 6 19.3 18.5 8.9 5.2 75 1.1 1.0 7 9.6 7.5 4.0 2.1 85 .4 1.0 8 4.8 4.5 1.9 .9 95 .0 .3 9 2.7 1.8 .8 .3 105 .1 .3 10 1.2 1.5 .5 .3 115 .0 .0 11 .6 .9 .0 .2 125 .0 .2 12 .6 .5 .1 .1 13 .3 3 .0 o 100.0 100.0 14 !l !o !o !o 15 .0 .0 .0 .0 Average score 40.1 1 235 42.9 • 1 168 16 .1 .5 .1 .0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 Average score 5.7 5.6 4.2 3.6 Total cases 1,235 1,168 1,235 1,168 * Compiled from Courtis, S. A., Report of Committee on School Inquiry, Board of Estimate and Apportionment, City of New York, vol. I, p. 526. mously outweigh the differences between the sexes in these intel- lectual and semi-intellectual traits that for practical purposes the sex difference may be disregarded. So far as ability goes, there could hardly be a stupider way to get two groups alike within each group, but differing between the groups, than to take the two sexes. As is well known, the experiments of the past generation in educat- ing women have shown their equal competence in school work of elementary, secondary and collegiate grade. The present genera- tion's experience is showing the same fact for professional and busi- ness service. The psychologists' measurements lead to the con- clusion that this equality of achievement comes from an equality of natural gifts, not from an overstraining of the lesser talents of women. 112 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION S.IS Continuous line ( ) for boys , Broken line ( ) for girls. Hare. j- lf- tf }s- ff- fs- ^f 7 f &s gs- laf. „ FIGURE J. ILLUSTRATING TABLE XLVII (A) •) foif boys. Broken Una (- ) for girls. 2. 3 -f 4 f 7 a 3 AA // vi *J y.« FIGURE K. ILLUSTRATING TABLE XLVII (B) V6 The practical equality of capacity in such mental processes as are involved in the studies of the secondary school has been sufficiently well established by the experience of the past half -century* and more of coeducational practice in this country. Such differences as are found in the achievements of boys and girls in the various secondary-school subjects are probably to be ascribed to differences in interests rather than to inherent differences in capacity. While the differences between the central tendencies for boys and girls in the case of most mental traits are ap- parently negligible it has been suggested that the varia- INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 118 bility of boys is greater than that of girls. Thus Thorn- dike:1 These facts make it extremely probable that, except in the two years nearest the age of puberty for girls, the male sex is slightly more variable. From the time of puberty for boys to maturity this difference seems to increase rapidly, though the records of marks which support this conclusion are not the best of evidence. The variability of girls with respect to the age at which any given school grade is reached is less than that of boys. The difference is not nec- essarily attributable in its entirety to an original difference between the natures of boys and girls. The evidence for this opinion is by no means satisfactory. If, however, further investigation should establish it, the greater variability of boys would mean that more boys than girls would be found both among the least capable and among the most capable pupils of any large group. Ter- man's studies of general intelligence lead him to the fol- lowing conclusion: Apart from the small superiority of girls, the distribution of intelligence in the two sexes is not different. The supposed wider variation of boys is not found. Girls do not group themselves about the median more closely than do boys. The range of I Q (Intelligence Quotient) including the middle fifty per cent is ap- proximately the same for the two sexes.2 Differences between boys and girls in interests and atti- tudes are probably of far greater extent and importance for secondary education than are differences in mental abilities. The latter are in all probability very small and their char- acter is largely determined by original nature, plus inner growth, plus exercise through training. The mental processes may be increased through growth and exercise or, perhaps,- 1 Thorndike, E. L., Educational Psychology, vol. m, pp. 194-95. 2 Terman, L. M., The Measurement of Intelligence, p. 70. 114 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION decreased through injury or disuse. They cannot, how- ever, be radically modified in character. Interests and atti- tudes are in part determined by inner nature. For the most part, however, they may be radically modified and changed through the influence of the social environment and through training. Hence it is that, even though we assume the es- sential equality of the sexes in all mental capacities at birth, the marked differences in the treatment and training ac- corded boys and girls before they enter the secondary school result in very important differences in the interests and attitudes of boys and girls in the secondary school. To this consideration must be added two further facts of im- portance. Interests and attitudes are determined as well by the probable character of the lives which boys and girls will follow after leaving the secondary school as by the training which they receive before and in the secondary school. That those interests are in part quite different for boys and girls is too obvious to require comment. The same may be said of their needs in life after the secondary school. The second fact of importance is that interests are for the most part somewhat general until exercised along special lines and therefore highly modifiable so that they are more amenable to the force of education than are the mental processes. Differences in mental abilities between boys and girls in the secondary school are probably quite negligible. Differ- ences in interests and attitudes are great and important. Whether or not boys and girls in the secondary school should be taught and trained alike or differently will depend on the degree to which we wish them to be kept alike or be made more alike and the degree to which we wish them to be kept or made more unlike. Here Thorndike's comment is in point: By way of preface to an account of sex differences it is well to note that their existence does not necessarily imply in any case the INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 115 advisability of differences in school and home training, and on the other hand, that even if the mental make-up of the sexes were identical it might still be wisest to educate them differently. It is true that a difference of two groups in a mental trait will theoreti- cally involve differences in treatment, but practical considerations apart from that of developing the highest efficiency in that trait may outweigh the advantages of the different treatment. . . . LeJ us note in the second place that the existence of differences need not imply the need of different training, because those very differences may have been due to the different training actually received and might never have appeared had training been alike in the two- classes. It is folly to argue from any mental condition in an indi- vidual or class without ascertaining whether it is due to original nature or to training.1 In certain phases of secondary education we may be sure that the aim should be to recognize differences between boys and girls in interests and attitudes by dealing with them in different ways with the intention of preserving such differ- ences and fostering them. Such would be the case in con- nection with vocational interests. In other phases of second- ary-school work we may be sure that differences already in evidence should be lessened, if possible, through secondary education. In any event individual differences among sec- ondary school pupils in interests and attitudes which are due to sex must be recognized in almost every phase of secondary-school work. PROBLEMS FOR FURTHER CONSIDERATION 1. Take the table of age-grade distribution of any secondary school. Find the per cent each age group in the first year of the school is of the total number of pupils in that grade. Compare the data with those of Table XXY. Do the same for pupils in the fourth grade of the school and com- pare results with those found for the first grade. 2. Make a table of distribution of the grades received by 150 or more high- school boys in any one subject of study. Do the same for 150 or more girls and compare with the first table. 1 Thorndike, E. L., Educational Psychology, vol. in, p. 169. 116 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION 3. Test the efficacy of promotion in the secondary school as selecting pupils by measuring the results of any general test, e.g., an "opposites test." (Cf. Whipple, G. M., Manual of Mental and Physical Tests, pp. 44S--46.) — 4. Make a list of all the differences in mental traits you believe exist be- tween secondary-school pupils of different races or nationalities. Indi- cate which of those you believe are due to biological heredity and which are due to social heredity or other environmental influence. '-sS. What important problems arise for secondary education out of differ- ences in social heredity among the pupils? 6. What important problems for secondary education arise out of other phases of environmental influence? r- 7. Make a list of all the differences in mental traits you believe exist be- tween boys and girls of secondary-school age. Indicate which of them you believe are due to original nature and which to environment and training. 8. In what ways does the factor of individual differences affect the general organization and administration of the public secondary school? 9. In what ways does the factor of individual differences affect the sub- ject-matter, teaching methods, and discipline of the secondary school? 10. Compare the relative standing of the same pupils in three different subjects of study by giving each pupil a ranking according to his posi- tion in the class (1st, 2d, etc.). How many pupils maintain the same relative position in all three subjects? How many fall in the same fifth of each class? 11. Make a study of the occupational interests of pupils hi each grade of any secondary school. 12. Make a study of the subject interests of secondary-school pupils. 13. How may the problem of adapting instruction to individual differences be attacked in the secondary school? SELECTED REFERENCES Courtis, S. A., in Report of the Committee on School Inquiry, Board of Esti- mate and Apportionment, New York City, vol. i, pp. 433-527. Gray, C. T., Variations in the Grades of High-School Pupils. Holley, C. E., "The Relationship between Persistence in School and Home Conditions," Fifteenth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, part u. King, I., The High-School Age, pp. 154-205. Mayo, M. J., The Mental Capacity of the American Negro, Archives of Psy- chology, no. 28, especially pp. 12jf. Terman, L. M., The Measurement of Intelligence, chaps, v-vi. Thirteenth Census of the United States (1910), vol. i, especially pp. 125-2461 781-1016, 1097-1127. INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 117 Thompson, H. B., Psychological Norms in Men and Women, University of Chicago Contributions to Philosophy, Pychology, and Education, vol. rv, no. 1. Thorndike, E. L., Educational Psychology, vol. m, part H. Thorndike, E. L., Principles of Teaching, pp. 68-109. Van Denburg, J. K., Causes of the Elimination of Students in Public Second- ary Schools of New York City, pp. 22-83. Whipple, G. M., Manual of Mental and Physical Tests, passim. Woodworth, R. S., "Racial Differences in Mental Traits," Science, vol. xxxi, pp. 171-86. THE SECONDARY-SCHOOL POPULATION: ITS CHARACTER AND CLASSIFICATION I. THE DISTRIBUTION OF PUPILS: RETARDATION AND ELIMINATION 31. Some illustrative figures. About a million and a half children in the United States are receiving some form of secondary education at the present time. Of that number about a million and a third are enrolled in the public second- ary schools. Of the total population one individual in about every sixty-nine is attending a secondary school and one in- dividual in about every seventy-seven is attending a public secondary school. More than one half of the children be- tween the ages of fourteen and eighteen are attending school. These figures indicate a marked development of secondary education within the past two or three decades. In so far as the figures in Table XL VIII may be accepted as correctly representing the facts of the case they indicate that within a period of twenty-five years the number of public secondary schools more than quadrupled, the number of pu- pils enrolled in the public secondary schools increased more than sixfold, and the number of teachers engaged therein increased more than sevenfold. From these facts certain con- clusions may be drawn: (a) The figures indicate an increase in the number of pupils receiving the benefit of secondary education unparalleled in any other country. Critics of the American secondary school should bear in mind the tremen- dous adjustments in organization and administration re- quired by the influx of great numbers of pupils into the THE SECONDARY-SCHOOL POPULATION 119 TABLE XLVHI* 1890-91 1900-01 1910-11 1914-15 Public secondary schools Number of schools 2,771 6,318 10,234 11,674 Number of pupils 211,596 541,730 984,677 1,328,984 Number of teachers 8,270 21,778 45,167 62,519 Pupils per 1,000 population. Private secondary schools Number of schools 3.4 1,714 7.1 1,892 10.9 1,979 12.9 2,248 Number of pupils 98,400 108,221 130,649 155,044 Number of teachers 6,231 9,775 12,073 14,026 Pupils per 1,000 population. All secondary schools Number of schools 1.6 4,485 1.4 8,210 1.4 12,213 1.5 13,922 Number of pupils 309,996 649,953 1,115,326 1,484,028 Number of teachers . 14,501 31,553 57,240 76,545 Pupils per 1,000 population. 5.0 8.5 12.3 14.4 * Compiled from Report of the United States Commissioner of Education (1916), vol. n, p. 449. The figures given in the Commissioner's Reports are to some extent faulty, especially for the earlier dates, because of incomplete returns. secondary school within a comparatively short time. Those adjustments have by no means yet been completed. (6) A specific instance of the difficulties arising in this connection may be found in the difficulty of providing teachers and accommodations to meet the developed needs, (c) The great increase in the number of secondary-school pupils is in part the result and in part the cause of the extension of the cur- ricula to meet the diversified needs of different groups of pupils, (d) It is indicative of the need for further adjust- ments. Pupils of types not attending the secondary school before 1890 now are enrolled in large numbers, (e) In 1890 more than one third of the secondary schools in the country were private schools and they enrolled nearly one third of all secondary-school pupils. In 1915 the per cent of private 120 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION secondary schools had fallen to about sixteen per cent of all secondary schools and the per cent of pupils attending those schools had fallen to about ten. The increasing dominance of the public secondary school over the private school is gratifying to believers in a democratic school system. 32. The distribution of pupils by schools. In discussing problems of secondary education in terms of the public schools one is apt to err in estimating the size of the "aver- age" secondary school. It is well to keep in mind the con- ditions illustrated by the data presented in the following table: TABLE XLIX. PUBLIC SECONDARY SCHOOLS AND PUPILS nsr 1914-15 * In cities of In other In all communities communities Number of schools 990 10,684 11,674 Number of pupils 662,004 666,980 1,328,984 Number of teachers 25,509 37,010 62,519 Average number teachers per school. . 25.8 3.5 5.4 Average number pupils per teacher. . . 26.0 18.0 21.3 Average number of pupils per school. 668.7 62.4 113.9 * Compiled from data given in Report of the United States Commissioner of Education (1916), vol. ii, pp. 449, 456, 457. Of all pupils hi the public secondary schools of the coun- try about one half are in schools the average enrollment of which is sixty-two pupils with three or four teachers, one for every eighteen pupils. The other half attend schools the average enrollment of which is six hundred and sixty-nine pupils with 'twenty-six teachers, one for every twenty-six pupils. It is obvious that the secondary education which can be provided for the first group is necessarily limited by the THE SECONDARY-SCHOOL POPULATION 121 small number of pupils attending any single school and by the correspondingly small teaching force. This factor of size of school is of particular importance in connection with problems connected with the differentiation of curricula, vocational education, and effective supervision of teaching. One of the most important, if not the most important, problems of secondary education in this country is that of providing anything like equality of educational opportunity in the small high school. 33. The distribution of pupils by grades. By grades the total secondary-school population is distributed as indicated hi the following table. TABLE L. PERCENTAGES OF ALL PTTPILS IN THE PUBLIC SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN THE VARIOUS GRADES* Grades 1907-08 1908-09 1909-10 1910-11 1911-12 1912-13 1913-14 1914-15 I.. 43.26 43.28 42.89 42.79 41.73 40.94 40.79 40.86 II. .. 27.16 26.88 27.10 26.73 27.08 26.94 26.74 26.69 III... 17.85 17.83 17.83 17.97 18.21 18.63 18.63 18.46 IV... 11.73 12.01 12.18 12.51 12.98 13.49 13.84 13.99 * Compiled from data given in Report of the United States Commissioner of Education (1916), vol. u. p. 448. It should be noted that a slight but favorable change has taken place within recent years in that larger proportions of the pupils are found in the third and fourth grades. This probably means that the retention of pupils through the high-school course has improved somewhat within the past few years. In terms of the number of pupils found in the first grade of the high school the proportions are as indicated in the following table: 122 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION TABLE LI. PERCENTAGES THE NUMBER OF PUPILS FOUND IN EACH GRADE is OF THE FIRST- YEAR ENROLLMENT* Grades 1907-08 1908-09 1909-10 1910-11 1911-12 1912-13 1913-H 19H-15 I... 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 II... 62.8 62.1 63.2 62.5 64.9 65.8 65.6 65.3 III... 41.3 41.2 41.6 42.0 43.6 45.5 45.6 45.2 IV... 27.1 27.8 28.4 29.2 31.1 33.0 33.9 34.2 * Compiled from the same source. Here again the improvement in conditions after 1908 should be noted. The relatively small numbers of pupils in the second, third, and fourth grades of the public secondary school at once attract attention and call for explanation. Three fac- tors are involved. Larger numbers of pupils begin their secondary education each successive year both as a result of the actual increase in population and because of the increas*. ing appeal of the secondary school. Some pupils fail of pro- motion, remaining to swell the size of the lower class and to decrease the size of the upper class. In the third place, pupils leave school before the secondary-school course is finished, thus decreasing the number of pupils in each successive grade. The last two factors will be considered below. The first factor of increased secondary-school population may be determined in part 1 by comparing the per cents that pupils in the second, third, and fourth grades were of the number of pupils respectively in the first grade one, two, and three years before, with proper correction for the differing num- bers of schools reporting in the various years. This is illus- trated in the following table: . Retardation being assumed fairly constant for the period considered. THE SECONDARY-SCHOOL POPULATION 123 TABLE LIE* 7 77 777 IV Graduated 'Class" of 1910. . 100.0% 61.1% 42.5% 28.8% 28.7% 'Class" of 1911.. 100.0 65.3 42.9 32.3 31.4 'Class" of 1912.. 100.0 62.2 41.4 32.8 31.4 'Class" of 1913.. 100.0 67.0 46.6 35.4 34.1 'Class "of 1914.. 100.0 64.7 45.5 35.6 33.2 * Compiled, with allowance for the increased number of schools reporting, from Report of the United States Commissioner of Education (1914), vol. n, p. 408. The table should be interpreted thus: In 1906-07 there were 288,748 pupils in the first grades of 7624 schools reporting. In 1907-08 from 8960 schools 209,265 pupils were reported to be in the second grades, an average per school of 23.4 pupils. At that rate 7624 schools would have had 178,402 pupils in the second grade in 1907-08, which is 61 . 1 per cent of the 288,748 pupils enrolled in the first grades of 7624 high schools. Even were exact data available concerning the factor of increased population annually it is probable that the figures given would not be changed materially. Hence the explana- tion of the small proportions of pupils in the second, third, and fourth grades of the public secondary school is likely to be found in the factors of retardation and elimination. 34. Retardation and acceleration. Pupils are said to be retarded when they are over age for the grade in which they are enrolled. The cause may be late entry into the school or failure to be promoted at any stage of the elementary school or of the secondary school. Pupils are said to be accelerated when they are under age for the grade in which they are found. The cause may be early entry into school or rapid promotion at any stage. Whether a pupil is to be considered over age, of normal age, or under age obviously depends on the standard which is taken as the "normal age." Com- monly a two-year span is taken, assuming ages 6-7 for the first grade of the elementary school, 14-15 for the first grade of the four-year high school, 15-16 for the second, 16-17 for the third, and 17-18 for the fourth. 124 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION Figures for the amount of retardation and acceleration in the public secondary schools of the country at large are lacking. However, in as much as retardation at any one point in the school system affects the work of all successive grades the data presented hi the following table for schools in general (elementary and secondary) are important. TABLE LUL MEDIAN PERCENTAGES OF THE WHOLE NUMBER OF BOYS OR GIRLS WHO WERE OF NORMAL AGE, OVER AGE, OR UNDER AGE (1908) * 1SS cities 0/85,000 population or over 186 cities of les» than 25,000 population Boys Girl* Boys Girls Of normal age 56 20 10 5 2 38 4 60 18 9 3 1 32 4 54 20 11 4 2 38 4 58 18 8 3 1 36 5 1 vear over age 2 years over age 3 years over age 4 years over age Total over age Total under age * Strayer, G. D., Age and Grade Census of Schools and Colleges, Bureau of Education Bulletin (1911), no. 6, p. 103. Normal age defined as 6-7 for first grade, etc. For an excellent later study see Berry, C. S., A Study of Retardation, Acceleration, Elimination, and Repetition in Two Hundred Twenty-five Towns and Cities of Michigan. As indicated by the figures in this table Strayer's investi- gation showed clearly that between fifty-five and sixty per cent of the pupils in the public schools (elementary and secondary) are of normal age, about one third or a little over are below the age where they might be expected to be accord- ing to their age, and less than five per cent are in classes beyond those of children of their age. The majority of those reported accelerated were so because of early entrance into school. That a considerable proportion of children retarded was so retarded because of late entry into the schools is indi- THE SECONDARY-SCHOOL POPULATION 125 cated by the fact that a relatively large per cent of children of ages 6-9 do not attend school. They will enter school late and be retarded from the start. TABLE LIV. PERCENTAGES OF CHILDREN OF CERTAIN AGE GROUPS ATTENDING SCHOOL (1910) * 1-year span 2-year span 3-year span Age Per cent Age Per cent Age Per cent 6 52.1 6- 7 63.3 6- 8 69.6 7 75.0 7- 8 78.8 7- 9 81.2 8 82.7 8- 9 84.4 8-10 86.3 9 86.2 9-10 88.1 9-11 89.1 10 90.0 10-11 90.6 10-12 90.5 11 91.2 11-12 90.5 11-13 89.9 12 89.8 12-13 89.3 12-14 86.6 IS 88.8 13-14 85.0 13-15 79.6 14 81.2 14-15 75.0 14-16 66.6 15 68 3 15-16 59.1 15-17 51.2 16 50.6 16-17 44.0 16-18 36.0 17 35.3 17-18 28.7 17-19 24.1 18 22.6 18-19 18.7 19 14.4 * Table compiled from the data given in Report of the Thirteenth Census (1910), pp. 310-11, 1128. These figures indicate that from one quarter to one third of the children enter school later than the age of six. Too great emphasis should not be placed on the fact that only a little over one half of the six-year-old children in the country were in school at the time of the census. Many of those who were six years old at the time the census was taken (as of April 15, 1910) undoubtedly were waiting to enter school the following September. The figures for age 7, however, show that that fact does not entirely explain the discrepancy between the number of children six years old and the school enrollment for that age. 126 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION It will be seen that the factor of retardation raises many problems for secondary education as it does for education in general. Among the most important of those problems may be noted the following, (a) Retardation, when due to late entry into the school, increases the diversity of age in any grade, thus increasing the heterogeneity of the pupil group to be taught. When due to failure of promotion, especially failure of promotion in the secondary school, it means that in many classes pupils are found repeating work in the same groups with pupils beginning it. Special classes for repeaters are exceptional and possible in large systems only. One feature of secondary-school work helps out here, the fact that in the secondary school promotion is more commonly by subjects and a change of election is possible. The problem of the "repeater" is far different from the problem of the beginner, even when the latter is retarded. (&) Retardation fosters the withdrawal of pupils from the school. When due to late entry the age factor tends to lessen the amount of education which many pupils can receive, since economic factors and other factors affect the amount of time which many can devote to education, especially after the end of the compulsory age period. When retardation is due to failure of promotion there is added to other factors the discourage- ment attendant on failure, (c) Retardation means greater expense in the maintenance of the schools. Ayres1 in a study of sixty-five cities estimated the cost of repeaters to be from 6.5 to 30.3 per cent of all money expended for schools in those cities. The cost of repeaters in the secondary school is particularly heavy, since the cost of education per pupil in the secondary school is considerably higher than in the ele- mentary school, (d) Perhaps most important of all is the fact that retarded pupils, whatever be the cause of their retardation, represent a large economic and social loss. 1 Ayres, L. P., Laggards in Our Schools, pp. 96-97. THE SECONDARY-SCHOOL POPULATION 127 Pupils entering school late and proceeding through the school at the normal rate must enter on their life's work late with resulting loss to themselves and to society. Pupils retarded by non-promotion likewise must enter on their life's work with the same economic and social loss unless that delay is caused by native incapacity and the added time in the school increases their abilities proportionately. It must, of course, be recognized that a certain proportion of retarded pupils is to be expected and must arise out of the legitimate selective function of the secondary school and other divisions of the school system. The comparatively small number of pupils who complete their secondary education in less than the normal time also raises some important problems. Assuming a chance distri- bution of abilities among secondary school children in gen- eral it is to be expected that there are almost as large pro- portions of relatively bright pupils as relatively dull pupils, and hence that1 the number of accelerates would more nearly equal the number of repeaters (though not of retarded pupils). Since a number of factors tend to lessen ability and achievement (illness, etc.) without corresponding factors which may tend to raise ability and achievement, the propor- tion of accelerates cannot be expected to equal the propor- tion of repeaters. Such factors cannot, however, explain the large discrepancy at present found. The cause is probably to be found in the inflexible machinery of administration. As retardation represents a large positive loss so the small amount of acceleration represents a negative loss — a failure to develop large potential values. It would appear that the public secondary school is ill-adapted both to the needs of the duller pupil and to the needs of the brighter pupil. All our knowledge of individual differences justifies the belief that a larger proportion of secondary school pupils should complete their secondary education in less time than that allotted to the " average " pupil. 128 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION 35. The elimination of pupils by grades. By elimination of pupils is meant their withdrawal before they have com- pleted the school course. In any school system a certain amount of elimination is always to be expected as the result of death, transfer, economic conditions, and the progres- sively selective function of the educational system. Such fac- tors cannot, however, explain the great amount of elimina- tion commonly found in the American public schools. The amount of elimination for any particular school system is determined with relative ease, but the amount varies very greatly. For school systems in general three somewhat extensive investigations have been made. Thorndike studied conditions in 23 cities of 25,000 population or over in 1906. TABLE LV. PERCENTAGES IN THE DIFFERENT GRADES OF THOSE BEGINNING THE FIRST GRADE OF THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL f^ffj/Ja Per cent remaining Per cent eliminated \jruftf/ Thorn- dike* Ayres t Strayer t Average Thorn- dike* Ayres f Strayerj. Average I... (100) (100) (100) (100) (0) (0) (0) (0) 2... (100) (100) (100) (100) (0) (0) (0) (0) 3... (100) (100) (100) (100) (0) (0) (0) (0) 4... 90 (100) (100) (97) 10 (0) (0) (3) 5... 81 (100) 95 (93) 19 (0) 5 (7) 6... 68 90 74 77 32 10 26 23 7... 54 70 63 62 46 30 37 38 8... 40 50 51 47 60 50 49 53 I.. 27 40 39 35 73 60 61 65 II... 17 20 22 20 83 80 78 80 III... 12 12 18 14 88 88 82 86 IV... 8 10 14 11 92 90 86 89 * Thorndike, E. L., The Elimination of Pupils from School, Bureau of Education Bulletin (1907), no. 4, pp. 11, 47. 5 Ayres, L. P., Laggards in Our Schools, p. 71. Estimates from graph. Strayer, G. D., Age and Grade Census of Schools and Colleges, Bureau of Education Bul- letin (1911), no. 5, pp. 6, 135-36. The writer is responsible for the interpretation of the data there given. There is a certain amount of inconsistency between the graph and the figures given.' Likewise there is inconsistency between the data given, loc. cit., and that in the Report of the United States Commissioner of Education (1910), vol. it, p. xxiii. THE SECONDARY-SCHOOL POPULATION 129 Ayres studied conditions in 58 cities in 1908. Strayer stud- ied conditions in 133 cities of 25,000 population or over and 186 cities of less than 25,000 population — in all 319 cities. The figures given in the Table LV indicate the general tendency discovered by those investigators. Those figures must not be interpreted with exactness since many factors render them at best only approximate. These figures can be considered as approximate only since they are based on data necessarily incomplete and valid for the time of the investigation only. However, the general tendency, with some allowance for improvement since those investigations were made, would indicate that little more than one third of the pupils who enter school reach the first grade of the four-year high school and that about one tenth only complete the course. Since the particular problem here is that of the secondary school we may interpret the figures already given hi terms of those who enter the first grade of the four-year high school. TABLE LVI. PERCENTAGES EST DIFFERENT GRADES OF THOSE WHO ENTER THE FlRST GRADE OF THE FOUR-YEAR HlGH SCHOOL * Per cent remaining Per cent eliminated Proportionate per cent eliminated between grades Grade 3 . 3 iS ^ g 1 3 "S § fe .5 'i . K =5 .3 0 g £ 0 g £ 0 'g 4i £ s> •« *" ^ S3 ^ ^ 8 •3 "" o5 i5 I... 100 100 100 100 0 • 0 0 0 ) 37 50 44 37-50 II... 63 50 56 50-63 37 50 44 37-50 30 40 18 18-40 III... 44 30 46 30-46 56 70 54 54-70 32 17 28 17-32 IV... 30 25 33 25-33 70 75 67 67-75 ' * Derived from the data given in Table LV. 130 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION On the basis of such figures and those presented in Tables L-LV it is probably safe to say that of pupils entering the four-year high school from one half to two thirds reach the second grade, from one third to one half reach the third grade, and from one quarter to one third reach the fourth grade. Of all pupils eliminated during the four-year high- school course it is probable that about one half are elimi- nated during or at the close of the first year.1 There is evi- dence that conditions have improved within the past five years or so and that present figures are somewhat higher for retention than those indicated in the tables above for the secondary school. Since the work of the secondary school is intimately affected by the work of the later grades of the elementary TABLE LVII. PERCENTAGES IN DIFFERENT GRADES OF THOSE ENTERING THE SEVENTH GRADE OF THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL* Per cent remaining Per cent eliminated Proportionate per cent eliminated between grades Grade £ 3 J 1 8 §> 5 1 ! 8 §> ••§ 1 « k s> .2 o E 2 •1 0 I C 1 1 1 a> ,S ^ •"5 55 45 S i -^ 3$ ti "^1 GQ ^ 7... 100 100 100 100 0 0 0 1 22 29 19 19-29 8... 78 71 81 71-81 22 29 19 19-29 34 20 23 20-34 I... 50 57 62 50-62 50 43 38 38-50 37 50 u 37-50 II... 31 29 35 29-35 69 71 65 65-71 30 40 18 18-40 III... 22 17 29 17-29 78 '83 71 71-83 32 17 28 17-32 IV... 15 14 22 14-22 85 86 78 78-86 ' * Derived from the data given in Table LV. 1 Counts, G. S., A Study of the Colleges and High Schools of the North Central Association. Bureau of Education Bulletin (1915), no. 6, p. 46. THE SECONDAKY-SCHOOL POPULATION 131 school and since a closer relation between those grades and the upper grades appears probable in the near future it is well to consider this factor in connection with elimination in grades seven and eight of the elementary school. (Table LVII.) It is to be noted that the largest proportionate elimination is found between the first and second grades of the high school. School conditions foster a relatively high amount of elimination between the last grade of the elementary school and the first grade of the high school. Nevertheless the amount of elimination at that point is smaller proportion- ately than the amount between the first and second grades of the secondary school. It is not improbable that the large amount of elimination found at that point is largely due to the difficulty of transition from the elementary school to the secondary school, the inability of the pupil to readjust himself to the markedly different conditions in the high school leading to failure hi work and ultimate withdrawal. A glance at such figures as are presented in Table II, will show that compulsory attendance laws affect grades 7 and 8 even more than grade I. 36. The elimination of pupils by age. Nothing is more certain than that the older the school pupil becomes the stronger is the force of those economic and social influences which ultimately will remove him from the school. Up to the age of fourteen the public schools hold their pupils well, aided by compulsory attendance laws. After that age is reached pupils leave school in great numbers. In 1910, according to the Thirteenth Census returns 90.9 per cent of all thirteen-year-old children were attending school, 85.3 per cent of the fourteen-year-olds, 75 per cent of the fifteen- year-olds, 58.9 per cent of the sixteen-year-olds, and 42.9 per cent of the seventeen-year-olds. These facts suggest one of two things : (1) that the compulsory attendance laws be raised without the privilege of employment certificates to the age 132 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION 100 90 80 ?70 . « 60 i « 50 1 &*° a. 30 SO 10 0 5 *"" '\ N.A 5 A \ 5 V % V \ \.\ s \» M \ > \ \ / \ H^ X \ \N s i^ ^ In grade 188 4667 8 I II mi? FIGURE L. ILLUSTRATING TABLE LV 100 90 I80 3 7° & «. 60 3 0 *" 40 80 80 10 n v \ • t ^ y '^ *v A % i ^S s, \ % \ \ I #* ^ ^ *•$ ^ "-.. 1 In grade FIGURE M. ILLUSTRATIKG TABLE LVI THE SECONDARY-SCHOOL POPULATION 133 LUU 90 80 70 00 SO 40 30 20 10 0 \ \ ^N \ ^ \ "X V _5 "\ \ A * \ \N \ X -3 ^r ^ ^ L^ -^ *"• ^ lagrada 7 8 I II IK FIGURE N. ILLUSTRATING TABLE LVII of sixteen; or (2) that opportunity to receive some of the benefits of secondary education be provided for pupils below the age of fourteen. The latter plan is a part of the scheme for the reorganization of secondary education recommended in later chapters. When elimination by age is brought into comparison with elimination by grade in the secondary school it is found that the older pupils are on entrance to the school the earlier and more rapidly they are eliminated. This is seen from the results of studies by Van Denburg (Table LV1II) and by others. The meaning of the figures hi Table LVIII is obvious. The amount of elimination at different ages in New York City was found by Van Denburg to be as indicated in Table LIX. The figures indicate percentages of the total number eliminated. 134 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION TABLE LVlII. ELIMINATION BY AGE AND GRADE IN NEW YORK CITY HIGH SCHOOL* Age at entrance Per cent eliminated during the Retarded (per cent) Graduated (per cent) Staying 4 years (per cent) Total eliminated (per cent) 1st year &d year 3d year 4th year Below 13 13 19 31 36 44 47 31 17 20 21 30 3 10 13 5 9 6 8 6 9 4 19 14 15 14 6 22 20 10 7 4 41 34 25 21 10 59 66 75 79 90 14 15 16. * Compiled and arranged from data given by Van Denburg, J. K., Causes of the Elimina- tion of Students in Public Secondary Schools of New York City, p. 91. In the table 13 years means 13 years, 0 months, to 13 years, 11 months, etc. TABLE MX f Per cent eliminated at the age of Median age on leaving 11 12 IS U 15 16 17 18 19 20 Boys.. Girls.. 0.4 0.0 1.1 0.5 13.6 12.0 21.3 27.4 26.9 26.4 20.3 21.4 11.2 7.8 4.5 3.8 0.7 0.5 0.0 0.2 14 years, 7.3 months 14 " 5.4 " Both.. 0.1 0.7 12.7 24.9 26.6 21.0 9.2 4.1 0.6 0.1 14 6.3 " | Van Denburg, J. K., op. cit., p. 91. Per cents calculated and table arranged by the writer. 37. Elimination and home conditions. The relation be- tween home conditions and elimination is very close in all probability. Such conditions are, of course, too complex and variable to permit anything like complete analysis. Certain features have been measured by Van Denburg, King,1 Holley, and others. Some of their findings are sug- gestive here. 1 King, I., The High-School Age, pp. 154-84. THE SECONDARY-SCHOOL POPULATION 135 (1) Financial conditions and elimination: Van Denburg investigated the amount of elimination found in various groups of pupils selected and classified on the basis of family income as measured by the monthly rental paid. TABLE LX* Monthly rented Per cent eliminated during the Retarded (per cent) Graduated (per cent) Staying 4 years (per cent) Total eliminated (percent) 1ft year Zdyear 3d year 4th year $10. . 41 41 39 31 19 21 17 28 3 8 11 7 9 10 8 4 9 8 3 15 19 12 22 15 28 20 25 30 72 80 75 70 $15 $20 Over $20. * Van Denburg, J. K., op. cit., p. 111. Van Denburg states: "On the whole the economic status of these pupils (so far as it is shown by the monthly rental) seems to be only a slight factor in the determination of length of stay in the high school." l Holley, basing his con- clusions on a study of rental value of home, personal prop- erty assessment, and real assessment, for parents of high- school children in Urbana, Illinois, claims that there is a fairly high correlation between the economic status of the family and persistence in the school.2 (2) Size of family: According to Van Denburg a pupil having no younger brother or sister stands a somewhat bet- ter chance of staying in school longer. His figures, however, are by no means conclusive evidence. 1 Van Denburg. J. K., op. cit., p. 113. 2 Holley, C. E., "The Relationship Between Persistence in School and Home Conditions," Fifteenth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, part n, especially pp. 55-62. 136 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION TABLE LXI * Having or Per cent eliminated during the without younger brother or sister Retarded (per cent) Graduated (per cent) Staying 4 years (per cent) Total eliminated (per cent) 1st year Sd year 3d year 4th year Having. . . 44 20 10 6 10 10 20 80 Without.. . 34 20 9 8 16 13 29 71 * Van Denburg, J. K., op. cit., p. 93. Calculated and arranged by the writer. (3) Nationality of father: Apparently little can be inferred from the data presented by Van Denburg concerning the nationality of the father. TABLE LXIIf Nationality of father American.. German. . . Russian. . . Irish All.. t Van Denburg, J. K., op. cit., p. 96. Calculated and arranged by the writer. Such data are quite inadequate as a basis for conclusions. (4) Occupation of father: Holley's investigation indicates that expectancy of stay in the high school is greater for pupils whose fathers are engaged in professional and com- mercial occupations and less for those pupils whose fathers are engaged in artisan trades, in semi-skilled, and in un- skilled occupations.1 1 Holley, C. E., op. cit., pp. 19, 75-78. Per cent eliminated during the Retarded (per cent) Graduated (per cent) Staying 4 years (per cent) Total eliminated (per cent) 1st year Zd year 3d year $h year 34 18 11 9 18 10 28 72 39 24 ' 9 4 8 16 24 76 33 16 9 13 11 16 29 71 58 18 11 4 8 1 9 91 37 20 10 7 14 12 26 74 THE SECONDARY-SCHOOL POPULATION 137 (5) Education of parents: Holley's investigation also indi- cates that there is a close correlation between the amount of education received by parents and the stay of children in the high school.1 38. Elimination, early intention, and early promise. Many boy3 and girls (together with their parents) have little faith that a secondary-school course will much benefit them in the life to which they look forward. This is clearly seen from the data presented in the two tables following. TABLE LXHI. "Do YOU BEGAKD A HIGH-SCHOOL COURSE AS NECESSARY FOR THE REALIZATION OF YOUR PLANS FOR THE FUTURE?"* Answer to the question Per cent eliminated during the Retarded (per cent) Gradu- ated (per cent) Staying 4 years (per cent) Total elimi- nated (per cent) 1st year Sd year 3d year 4th year "Yes": Boys 30 22 26 53 48 49 38 42 41 19 18 18 23 20 21 29 18 22 11 12 12 11 7 8 8 11 10 14 9 11 2 5 4 5 2 3 9 26 18 9 10 10 9 17 14 17 13 15 2 10 8 11 10 10 26 39 33 11 20 18 20 27 24 74 61 67 89 80 82 80 73 76 Girls Both "No": Boys Girls Both "Undecided": Boys Girls Both * Calculated and arranged from Van Denburg, op. cit., pp. 104-05. If, at the beginning of his high-school course, a boy ex- pects to complete the course, on the basis of Van Denburg's finding for New York City, the chances are approximately even that he will be eliminated in the first year, in the second 1 Holley, C. E., op. cit., pp. 28-32, 39-53. 138 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION TABLE LXIV. "Do YOU EXPECT TO COMPLETE YOUR COUBSE?" * Answer to the question Per cent eliminated during the Retarded (per cent) Gradu- ated (-per cent) Staying 4 years (per cent) Total elimi- nated (per cent) 1st year Sd year 3d year 4th year "Yes": Bo vs. . 25 18 21 72 71 72 49 44 46 20 17 18 16 15 15 26 25 25 12 12 12 6 3 4 9 11 10 13 7 10 2 2 2 3 6 5 14 28 22 2 5 3 4 8 7 16 18 17 2 4 3 9 5 7 30 46 39 4 9 6 '13 13 14 70 54 61 96 91 94 87 87 86 Girls Both "No" Boys Girls Both "Undecided": Bovs Girls Both * Calculated and arranged from Van Denburg, op. cii., p. 108. year, or that he will remain four years. If, on the other hand, he does not expect to complete the course, the chances are nearly three to one that he will leave school during the first year, are nearly nine to one that he will leave during the first or second year, and are only one in twenty-five that he will stay four years. If he is undecided whether he will remain four years or not the chances are even that he will leave during the first year, are three to one that he will leave during the first or second year, and are about one hi eight that he will remain four years. Early promise as indicated by records made during the first half year of school work affords a fairly good measure of the length of time pupils will remain in the secondary school. This has been measured by Van Denburg with the results indicated in the following table. THE SECONDARY-SCHOOL POPULATION 139 TABLE LXV* Average mark 1st half year Per cent eliminated during the Retarded (per cent) Graduated (per cent) Staying 4 years (per cent) Total eliminated (per cent) 1st year 2d year 3d year 4th year 90-100. . . 6 12 12 6 11 53 64 36 80- 89. . . 17 20 2 10 14 37 51 49 70- 79. . . 20 23 11 10 18 18 36 64 60- 69. . . 39 20 14 6 18 3 21 79 51- 59. . . 48 18 11 7 11 5 16 84 0- 49. . . 61 22 8 4 5 0 5 95 * Calculated and arranged from Van Denburg, J. K., op. cit., p. 175. Much the same situation is found when "early promise" is measured by the teachers' estimates of pupils' ability, industry, and results. Van Denburg found the following figures. TABLE LXVIf Per cent eliminated during the Retarded Gradu- Staying Total elimi- Division of class group (per ated (per It years nation Istyr. Sdyr. Sdyr. 4th yr. cent) cent) (per cent) (per cent) Estimated ability: Highest third . . . 22 18 9 6 15 30 45 55 Middle third. . . . 39 20 11 8 14 8 22 78 Lowest third. . . . 48 18 10 4 16 4 20 80 Estimated industry: Highest third . . . 27 19 7 6 17 24 41 59 Middle third 37 18 12 8 15 10 25 75 Lowest third. . . . 49 19 11 4 13 4 17 83 Estimated resulte:. . Highest third . . . 21 16 11 7 17 28 45 55 Middle third. . . . 34 22 9 8 18 9 27 73 Lowest third. . . . 49 17 12 6 13 3 16 84 t Calculated and arranged from Van Denburg, J. K., op. cit., p. 149. 140 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION Dynes secured data concerning the grades received by graduates and non-graduates which indicate much the same condition as that shown by the preceding tables. TABLE LXVII. GRADES RECEIVED BY PUPILS* Grades Graduates Non-graduates Total per cent Number Per cent Number Per cent Graduates Nan-graduates Excellent Good 2121 8464 4540 1272 1037 85 81 72 64 '40 370 1961 1726 720 1564 15 19 28 36 60 12 49 26 7 6 6 81 27 11 25 Medium Poor Failure * Dynes, J. J., "The Relation of Retardation to Elimination of Students from the High School," School Review, vol. xxii, p. 404. 39. The lure of the out-of-school world. Closely related to the factors considered above is a large number of factors which seriously affect the stay of pupils in school. In the upper grades of the system the school must constantly wage an uphill fight against the increasing power of the "outside" world to draw boys and girls out of the school into occupa- tional life. One of the most powerful factors producing early elimination in the school arises from the world-old unwilling- ness of the individual to forego a present lesser good for the sake of a later greater good. The error is frequently made of assuming that it is primarily the desire to engage in active life which draws boys and girls out of school. That element is undoubtedly present in many cases. The real element in- volved in most cases, however, is not work but the advan- tages which come from engaging in an occupation and be- coming a wage earner — the securing and spending of money and the increased freedom and privileges which come when THE SECONDARY-SCHOOL POPULATION 141 the boy or girl becomes a somewhat financially independent individual. The boy or girl in school sees his former school fellow able to enjoy many privileges and to attain a degree of independence not granted to himself. The stimulus to go and do likewise is in many, many cases irresistible. When the influence of the world without the school is rapidly growing, the character of the education provided in the school (especially in grades seven and eight) does not afford a very strong counteracting influence. The theory may, perhaps, be justified that the character of much of the work of the middle grades of the school system itself in many cases becomes a very effective eliminating factor. St 70 Yes Undecided No 1st year Sd year Sd year 4th year Graduated 74% 56% 44% 33% 15% 59 37 27 24 10 51 SO 22 18 8 FIGURE O" ILLUSTRATING THE EXPECTANCY OF STAY IN THE HIGH SCHOOL 142 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION 40. Expectancy of stay in the secondary school. The length of time different groups of pupils can be expected to remain in the public high school may be estimated to a cer- tain degree by the figures for elimination which have beer presented in the preceding tables. On the basis of similai figures procured for any individual secondary school it is possible to undertake some diagnosis of the probable condi- tions to be found in that school one, two, or three years later.1 This is clearly true with respect to groups of pupils. 80. Un4etirted \ Ul jsart ( mcy f .tin. U >uree ^ i£ f W 14 •U Yes idecided No. Yes ndecided No. 1st Third 2d Third 3d Third 1st Third 2d Third 3d Third 1st Third 2d Third 3d Third 90-100? 80-89 70-79 60-69 50-59 0-49 Chances are even that Half yean, fSS£? 12S4ES7S half years Median Expectancy 8.8 3.0 .2.2 1.9 4.3 2.4 1.6 4.9 1.9 0.8 6.9 2.7 2.7 4.4 3.1. 1.9 4.9 3.6 1.6 8.0 7.0 .4.5 2.8 1.8 1.2 Expectancy on the basi Expectancy on of teachers' estimates basis of grades Results Industry Abi 12345678 .Half years FIGURE S. ILLUSTRATING MEDIAN EXPECTANCY OF STAY EN THE HIGH SCHOOL Measured by various factors. Each vertical line represents the end of one half-year term. Read as follows: Of pupils who entered high school at the age of 13, one half remained less than 3.8 half-years and one half remained more than 3.8 half-years. The chances are there- fore one to one that any pupil entering at that age would remain 3.8 half years. (Cf. Tables LVII, LXI1I, LXIV, LXV, LXVI.) 146 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION II. THE CLASSIFICATION OF PUPILS 41. The classification of secondary-school pupils. For purposes of organization and administration pupils in the public secondary schools are best classified on the basis of their expectancy of stay in the school and their probable future activities after leaving. Two general groups for initial consideration are (i) those who are destined to com- plete the course, and (ii) those who are destined to leave the secondary school before the completion of the course. Those who are destined to complete the course may further be divided into (1) those whose education is to continue beyond the secondary school, consisting of (a) those who will go to college, and (6) those who will attend some other institution of higher education; and (2) those whose formal education is to end at the close of the secondary-school course. Those who will not complete the secondary-school course may be divided into groups of (1) those who will remain not more than one year, (2) those who will remain one year but not more than two years, and (3) those who will remain two years but not more than three years. It is obvious that the needs of these various groups differ noticeably and that their different needs call for forms of education differing in some respects. The composition of the several groups and their proportionate importance are considered in the following sections. 42. Pupils completing the course. The secondary school was largely a school preparing its pupils for higher education until toward the close of the nineteenth century. During the last decade of the nineteenth century and the beginning of the present century there has been a marked increase in the attendance in the public secondary school of pupils who were not destined for higher education. As a result there has been a distinct decrease in the proportion of secondary-school THE SECONDARY-SCHOOL POPULATION 147 pupils destined for higher education, although the gross number has increased absolutely and in relation to growth in population. Realization of that fact has led to an under- estimate by many of the proportion of pupils going to col- lege or other institutions of higher education from the public secondary schools. Thus, in 1893 the Committee of Ten stated that "only an insignificant percentage of the gradu- ates of these [high] schools go to colleges or scientific schools," and that statement has been accepted generally since that time. It is, however, quite false. In 1915, of the graduates of the public high schools of the country, 35.85 per cent were prepared for college and 16.27 per cent were prepared for other higher institutions, making a total of approximately one half of the graduates of our public high schools prepared for higher education in that year.1 For several years the proportion has been approximately the same. If we assume that approximately one third of pupils entering the first grade of the high school are graduated, the figures above given would indicate that about one sixth of the pupils who enter the secondary school are destined to enter some higher institution and that about one sixth are destined to close then- education at the end of the second- ary-school course. Since about one third of the graduates of the public secondary schools go to college, approximately one ninth of those who enter the secondary school must be destined to go to college. On the same basis approximately one eighteenth of those who enter the secondary school must be considered as destined to enter some higher in- stitution other than the college — for the most part the normal schools. Since about two thirds of those who enter the first grade 1 Report of the United States Commissioner of Education (1916), vol. u, pp. 454-55. 148 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION of the four-year high school reach the second grade, and since about one third of those who enter the first grade of the high school are destined to graduate, it follows that about one half of all pupils in the second grade of the high school are des- tined to graduate. From these figures we find that of all pupils in the second grade of the high school approximately one quarter will enter higher institutions, about one sixth entering college and about one twelfth going to other insti- tutions. By a similar line of reasoning we may estimate figures for the third grade of the high school. Figures for the fourth grade for all practical purposes may be assumed to TABLE LXVIII. PERCENTAGES OF DIFFERENT GROUPS OF PUPILS IN THE VARIOUS GRADES OF THE PUBLIC HIGH SCHOOL * Groups Grades I 11 III IV I Destined to be graduated 33.3 16.6 11.1 5.5 16.7 66.6 33 3 50.0 25.0 16.6 8.4 25.0 50.0 66.6 33.3 22.2 11.1 33.3 33.4 100.0 50.0 33.3 16.7 50.0 II. Pupils destined not to be graduated 2. Staying more than 1 year, not more than two . . . 3. Staying more than 2 years, not more than three. 20.0 10.0 35.0 14.0 33.4 * The reader is warned against interpreting the figures as anything more than a reason- able estimate true for the whole country. Conditions in any particular community may differ widely from that indicated by the figures given. An actual study of the figures presented in the report of the United States Commissioner of Education for the period 1909-13 gave the following figures: Groups Grades I 11 111 IV T £• n. p i. 0. r 34 17 12 5 16 65 2 5 0 S 1 8 51.1 26.1 17.9 8.2 24.9 48.9 73 37 25 11 35 26 4 7 7 8 8 6 96.7 49.5 33.9 15.6 47.2 3.3 THE SECONDARY-SCHOOL POPULATION 149 approximate those for graduates. Summarizing we may suggest Table LXVIII as indicating the approximate pro- portions of pupil-groups in the different grades of the four' year public high school for the country at present. *•*• Criie SO CO — *-: 1— £_3< A -&- 6 2. 3-1 FIGURE T. ILLUSTRATING THE PROPORTION EACH GROUP is OF THE TOTAL NUMBER IN THE HIGH-SCHOOL CLASSES — 1913-14 Shaded portion for those completing the course: A. Going to college. B. Going to some higher institution. C. Closing their education at the end of the high school. Unshaded portion for those not completing the course: 1. Those staying one year or less. 2. Those staying more than one year, not more than two years. S. Those staying more than two years, not more than three years. 4. Those staying more than three years, but not staying four. It is probable that the large proportion of pupils prepar- ing for admission to higher education in many high schools is indicative of the fact that that function of secondary education is receiving too great attention and that insuffi- cient attention is being paid to groups of pupils who are 150 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION destined to leave school early or to end their formal educa- tion with the close of the secondary-school course. This fact is clearly shown by the fact that in those States where the percentage of high-school graduates going to higher institutions is unusually large the per cent which the gradu- ates are of all pupils in the high schools is relatively small, the number of high-school pupils in each million of total population is relatively small, and the number of graduates to each million of total population is relatively small. This is shown in the following table. TABLE LXIX. STATES ARRANGED IN THE ORDER OF THE LOWEST TO THE HIGHEST PERCENTAGES OF GRADUATES OF THE HIGH SCHOOLS GOING TO COLLEGE IN 1911* Lowest quarter Second quarter Third quarter Highest quarter Lower half Higher half Median per cent of graduates going to college 26.00 35.00 42.00 53 00 31 00 47.00 Per cent graduates were of all pupils in the high schools High school pupils to each million of total population 13.94 11,548 11.99 12,873 11.18 9,408 10.01 5,977 12.79 12,291 10.74 7,737 Graduates to each mil- lion of total popula- tion 1,609 1,543 1,052 598 1,572 830 * Compiled from data given on pages 18-18 of Bulletin (1912) no. 22, of the Bureau of Education and the Report of the Thirteenth Census (1910). Cf. Inglis, A. J., "High School Graduates and Preparation for Higher Institutions," School and Society, vol. I, no. 26 (June 26, 1915), p. 933. 43. The distribution of secondary-school graduates. At least two studies have been made of the distribution of high- school graduates which are suggestive for our present pur- pose. The results of those studies are presented in the two tables following. THE SECONDAEY-SCHOOL POPULATION 151 TABLE LXX. DISTRIBUTION OF 20,389 GRADUATES FROM 596 HIGH SCHOOLS IN INDIANA, ILLINOIS, IOWA, KANSAS, MICHIGAN, MINNESOTA, MISSOURI, MONTANA, NEBRASKA, NORTH DAKOTA, SOUTH DAKOTA, OHIO, OKLAHOMA, WISCONSIN, 1913 * Occupations In cities of less than 7500 population- In cities of more than 7500 population I nail cities considered Number Percent Number Per cent Number Percent College 2,636 437 310 462 743 970 1,775 331 332 689 1,832 583 23.75 3.94 2.79 4.16 6.69 8.74 15.99 2.99 2.99 6.21 16.50 5.25 2,854 325 381 138 741 1,087 1,316 342 143 182 1,076 704 30.72 3.49 4.10 1.49 7.98 11.70 14.17 3.68 1.54 1.96 11.59 7.58 5,490 762 691 600 1,484 2,057 3,091 673 475 871 2,908 1,287 26.9 3.7 3.4 2.9 7.3 10.1 15.1 3.3 2.4 4.3 14.3 6.3 Commercial school . . . Trades Farming. . Normal school Business At home Professions Domestic Economy, Agriculture Teaching Other occupations. . . . Unknown Total 11,000 100.00 9,289 100.00 20,389 100.0 * Arranged from data given by Counts, G. S., A Study of the Colleges and High Schools in the North Central Association, Bulletin (1915) no. 6 of the Bureau of Education, p. 91. Of the graduates going to college from 239 out of 333 school reporting, fifty or more per cent were from the high- est third of the graduating classes. Noteworthy are the different proportions of those of the highest standing for the several groups. (Table LXXII.) Apparently those who went to college and those who stayed at home after graduation came from the most schol- arly portion of the class in relatively large proportion. Apparently those who went to normal school or directly into teaching came from the average or below average group of pupils. Apparently also those who went directly into 152 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION TABLE LXXI. THE DISTRIBUTION OF HIGH-SCHOOL GRADU- ATES BT DESTINATION AND HIGH-SCHOOL. STANDING NEW YORK STATE, 1908* High-school standing average Total cages Went to college Went to normal school Went to profes- sional school Went directly into teaching Went into business Went into trade Stayed at home 67 1 1 68 3 1 1 0 1 69 1 0 1 0 0 0 70 10 3 2 0 1 1 3 71 5 2 1 0 0 1 1 72 13 2 3 2 1 1 1 1 73 15 4 1 4 3 0 2 0 74 26 5 5 2 4 5 2 2 75 25 7 4 1 6 5 2 0 76 40 2 16 4 7 4 4 2 77 45 19 4 3 10 5 3 1 78 49 10 9 2 9 8 7 1 79 55 15 9 5 6 10 6 1 80 48 18 9 4 5 3 4 3 81 49 20 6 2 3 8 7 2 82 64 18 13 2 10 7 5 7 83 62 26 5 5 8 6 5 4 84 54 15 13 0 6 8 4 6 85 39 16 5 1 11 2 1 2 86 34 11 5 1 10 4 0 &, 87 29 14 7 0 5 1 1 1 88 24 11 3 0 5 1 0 4 89 26 14 2 0 4 2 1 2 90 6 3 0 2 1 0 0 91 3 2 0 0 1 0 92 4 4 0 0 0 93 4 1 1 1 1 94 1 1 0 95 1 1 0 96 1 0 1 87 1 1 Totals 738 246 122 40 117 86 61 42 Per cent . 100.00 33.61 16.60 6.43 15.63 11.70 8 30 5 58 Median rank 81.3 82.8 81.7 78.5 81.7 80.6 79 5 82 3 * Table arranged from data given by Shallies, G. W., "The Distribution of High-School Graduates after leaving School," School Review, vol. xxi, no. 2 (February, 1913), pp. 86-S7. Some slight errors of computation in Shallies's tables are corrected here. Apparently about twenty-four graduates are unaccounted for in his figures. professional school, into business, and into trade came from the poorer group in relatively large proportion. This is shown even more clearly perhaps from the figures given in Table LXXIH. THE SECONDAKY-SCHOOL POPULATION 153 TABLE LXXU. PERCENTAGE OP GRADUATES OF DIFFERENT GRADES OF SCHOLARSHIP ENTERING VARIOUS OCCUPATIONS, NEW YORK STATE * Scholarship group Total number in each group Went to college Went to normal school Went to profes- sional school Went directly into teaching Went into business Went into trade Stayed at home 84-97 79-85 67-78 227 278 233 41.41 34.89 23.61 13.42 15.11 19.31 1.32 6.50 8.15 18.94 11.51 18.03 9.25 12.23 13.30 3.52 9.71 11.16 7.93 6.12 3.00 67-97 738 33.61 16.60 5.43 15.63 11.70 8.30 5.58 * Tables derived from data given by Shallies, G. W., toe. cit. TABLE LXXTTT. PERCENTAGE OF GRADUATES ENTERING VARIOUS OCCUPATIONS FROM DIFFERENT SCHOLARSHIP GROUPS, NEW YORK STATE f Scholarship group Total number in each group Went to college Went to normal school Went to profes- sional school Went directly into teaching Went into business Went into trade Stayed at home 84-97 79-83 67-78 227 278 233 38.21 39.43 22.36 28.69 34.42 36.89 7.50 45.00 47.50 36.75 27.35 35.90 24.42 39.54 36.04 13.12 44.26 42.62 42.86 40.48 16.66 84-97 738 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 t Tables derived from data given by Shallies, G. W., toe. cit. 44. Pupils destined not to complete the course. Approxi- mately two thirds of the pupils who enter the first grade of the public secondary school leave school before the close of the course. About one third of those who enter leave during the first year or before the beginning of the second year, about one half leave before the beginning of the third year and about two thirds leave before the beginning of the last year. Relatively few pupils leave school during the fourth year of the course. 154 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION If these figures be correct it follows that of all pupils leav- ing the secondary school before the completion of the full course three important groups demand attention in the organization and administration of the public high school. (1) Pupils destined to receive not more than one year of secondary education constitute about one third of all pupils entering the public secondary school at the present time. In 1913-14 there were 497,110 pupils in the first grades of public high schools, about 165,703 of whom were destined to end then* education at or before the end of the first grade of the secondary school. This fact demands that the atten- tion of school authorities be directed along two lines. It demands first of all that steps be taken to decrease the number of those who leave school so early by (a) encourag- ing some to proceed further along courses now offered, or (6) by providing new forms of education which will encou- rage many who now drop out to continue further. It de- mands, secondly, that, for those who must drop out of school by the close of the first grade of the high school, secondary education must be provided such that they may be most benefited by their brief stay in the secondary school and best fitted for the lives which they must needs live. It is obvious that those who must leave school thus early are destined to enter industrial, commercial, agricul- tural, or household occupations for the most part and to live corresponding lives. (2) Pupils destined to remain more than one year but not more than two years in the secondary school constitute about one fifth of all pupils entering the first grade and about one third of all pupils in the second grade of the high school. In 1913-14 those proportions included about 100,000 pupils in each of the first and second grades belonging to this group. Here again the facts demand that school authorities direct their attention to this group as well as to the group THE SECONDARY-SCHOOL POPULATION 155 of pupils who would receive but one year of high-school education. While the lives of pupils belonging to this group may reach a somewhat higher level than the lives of those who receive but one year of high-school education, these pupils will be much of the same type and the education afforded them should differ from the latter more in extent than in general character. Such pupils are also destined to enter the industries, business, agriculture, and home- making for the most part. (3) Pupils destined to remain more than two years but not more than three years in the secondary school constitute approximately ten per cent of the pupils entering the first grade, approximately fifteen per cent of those in the second . grade, and approximately one third of those in the third grade of the secondary school. In 1913-14 those propor- tions included approximately 50,000 pupils in each of the first, second, and third grades of the high school. Beyond doubt many of those pupils could readily be encouraged to complete the full four years of high-school work. Others, however, must be provided for much as in the case of the other two groups considered. No form of organization and administration of the public secondary school can be considered satisfactory which does not have as one important aim provision for these three groups of pupils so as to provide (a) that larger proportions of pupils may be encouraged to extend the time spent by them in the high school, and (6) provide suitable forms of education for those who must conclude their formal educa- tion after one, two, or three years of high-school education. PROBLEMS FOR FURTHER CONSIDERATION ' — 1. Show how the rapid increase of the secondary school population has affected the economy of the high school. Illustrate specific failures to adjust the secondary school to the changed conditions caused by the increase in number of pupils and changes in their character. 156 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION -x 2. Indicate specific ways in which the secondary school of fifty pupils with two or three teachers is limited in the facilities which it can pro- vide the pupils. Do the same for the secondary school of one hundred pupils with four or five teachers. 3. Compare the average number of pupils per public high school in the United States for the individual years from 1907-08 to 1914-15. Do the same for the average number of each of the four grades. (Cf. Report of the United States Commissioner of Education (1916), vol. n, p. 448. 4. What was the number of children of different school ages in 1910? Is it true that there are larger numbers of children of a given age each successive year? (Cf. the Report of the Thirteenth Census (1910), vol. i, p. 310.) 5. Compare the tables of the age-grade distribution for the high schools of any two or three cities. Assuming a two-year span for normal age for each grade, e.g., 14-15 for the first grade of the high school, what are the relative amounts of retardation and acceleration? — . 6. What common forms of administrative machinery interfere with rapid promotion in the public high school? 7. If possible secure data concerning the number of 'repeaters' in any high school and determine the cost of those repeaters, assuming that each costs the amount of the per capita cost of the secondary school. The actual cost would really be much less. Why? Estimate the saving in the case of accelerates on the same basis. 8. Assuming that the largest age group indicates the number of pupils be- ginning school each year estimate the elimination for grades of the ele- mentary and secondary school i-iv for any school system whose age- grade distribution is available. — 9. What may be the causes of the apparently great elimination between grades I and II of the public secondary school. Suggest remedies. 10. For pupils at present in the last grade of the high school secure the earliest gradings received in their first year of high-school work. Make a table indicating the per cent of elimination for groups arranged accord- ing to the different gradings received in those first reports. 11. For any high school consider the pupils belonging to the class which has recently graduated. From their school records classify them according to the scheme employed in Table LXVIII. (Compare the tables.) SELECTED REFERENCES Ayres, L. P., Laggards in Our Schools. Berry, C. S., A Study of Retardation, Acceleration Elimination, and Repeti- tion in the Public Elementary Schools of Two Hundred Twenty-five Towns and Cities of Michigan : reproduced in part in the Seventy-ninth Annual Report of the Superintendent of Public Instruction of the State of Michigan (1915-16). THE SECONDARY-SCHOOL POPULATION 157 Bliss, D. C., "High-School Failures," Journal of Educational Administra- tion and Supervision, vol. in, pp. 125-37. Book, W.F., " Why Pupils Drop Out of High School," Pedagogical Seminary, vol. xi, pp. 204 ff. Glement, J. A., "Student Population and Related Problems in High Schools," Illinois School Survey, pp. 185-222. Illinois State Teachers' Association (1917). Counts, G. S., Part n of A Study of the Colleges and High Schools in the North Central Association, Bureau of Education, Bulletin (1915) no. 6, pp. 31 jf. Dynes, J. J., " Relation of Retardation to Elimination of Students from the High School," School Review, vol. xxn, pp. 396-406. Holley, C. E., "The Relationship between Persistence in School and Home Conditions," Fifteenth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, part n. Ruling, R. G., "Failures in the First- Year High School," Educational Re- view, vol. xx, pp., 463 ff. Inglis, A. J., "The Distribution of Pupils in the Public High Schools," Ed' ucational Review, vol. XIAI, pp. 344-50. Inglis, A. J., " High-School Graduates and Preparation for Higher Institu- tions, School and Society, vol. i, pp. 932-34. Johnson, G. R., "Qualitative Elimination in High Schools," School Review, vol. xviii, pp. 380 ff. King, I., The High-School Age, pp. 154-205. King, I., "The Vocational Interests, Study Habits, and Amusements of Pupils of Certain High Schools in Iowa," School Review, vol. xxn, pp. 165-81. Koons, G. J., "Vocational Distribution of High School Graduates and of Pupils Leaving School before Graduation," Educational Administration and Supervision, vol. in, pp. 358-60. Lurton, E. E., "The Disintegration of a High School Class," School Review, vol. xrx, pp. 680 /. Mitchell, H. E., "The Distribution of High School Graduates in Iowa, School Review, vol. xxn, pp. 82-90. Shallies, G. W., "The Distribution of High-School Graduates after Leaving School," School Review, vol. xxi, pp. 86-87. Strayer, G. D., Age and Grade Census of Schools and Colleges, Bureau of Education, Bulletin (1911) no. 5. Strayer, G. D., and Thorndike, E. L., Educational Administration, pp. 3-53, 69-73, 165-75. Terman, L. M., The Measurement of Intelligence, chaps, i, n. Thorndike, E. L., The Elimination of Pupils from School, Bureau of Educa- tion, Bulletin (1907) no. 4. Thorndike, E. L., "Educational Diagnosis," Science, vol. xxxvn, pp. 133- 42, 258-59. Van Denburg, J. K., Causes of Elimination of Students in Public Secondary Schools of New York City. PART H THE INSTITUTION AND ITS PURPOSE CHAPTER V THE DEVELOPMENT OF SECONDARY EDUCATION IN AMERICA 45. Three principal periods of development. The history of secondary education in America is commonly and con- veniently considered according to the three principal phases of its development: (1) the Latin grammar school, covering approximately the colonial period; (2) the academy move- ment, beginning in the latter half of the eighteenth century and extending well into the latter half of the nineteenth century; (3) the public high-school movement, beginning in the third decade of the nineteenth century, establishing itself in the last quarter of that century, and continuing up to the present time. These three movements overlap to a considerable degree, some Latin grammar schools persisting long after the academy movement was well under way, and the academy continuing up to the present to some extent. The distinction of periods and movements is not based on institutional changes alone. The institutional changes themselves were the outcomes of real social factors at work in American society and consequent modifications in the conceptions of the function of secondary education. When the Latin grammar schools of the American colonies became inadequate for the social needs which developed in the new country they disappeared and the academy which supplied education suited to those needs took its place as the domi- nant institution for secondary education. The academy, however well suited though it may have been to the frontier conditions of the early democracy and to the laissez-faire policy of our early government, was not well suited to our 162 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION later democratic ideals or to later governmental policy. It therefore gave way to the public high school. I. THE LATIN GRAMMAR SCHOOL 46. The Latin grammar school of England. The earliest secondary schools of this country were modeled on the Latin grammar schools of England. Unfortunately data regarding the early Latin grammar school of the American colonies are so meagre and fragmentary that any exact analysis of the school is impossible. Such data as we have, however, show clearly the debt of the Latin grammar school in this country to its prototype in England. In both coun- tries the aim of the grammar school was preparation for the university. The curriculum in both cases was restricted to the study of the classics. The specific authors read, the spe- cific books employed, and the methods of teaching involved in both countries were almost exactly the same. In both cases the schools were for those few boys who were destined to go to college or at least belonged to the upper classes. 47. The beginning of secondary education in America. As early as 1621 a movement was inaugurated to establish a grammar school at Charles City by the Virginia Company of London. Definite plans were made for its establishment, but the Indian massacres of 1622 and the downfall of the Virginia Company in 1624 ended the movement and there is no evidence that the school was ever opened. Again in Virginia a second movement to establish a grammar school was begun in 1635 when a certain Syms left his estate for the foundation of a free school. Acceptance of that grant was not confirmed until seven years later. Subsequently records refer to that school endowed by Syms as in active operation and an existing institution claims that some of the original grant remains as a part of its permanent funds. 48. The Public Latin School in Boston. The first second- ary school in America, of which we have definite knowledge, was the Public Latin School founded in Boston in 1635. It is a fact of no little interest that the colonists from the beginning devoted special attention to secondary education and it is possible that secondary education as a public responsibility would not so easily have gained its way in America if impetus had not been given to that movement in early colonial days. While the Latin grammar school in Boston probably represented secondary education at its best hi colonial America and therefore cannot be considered in all respects as typical of the colonial grammar school, it is not unfair to consider it as representing at least the general scope and economy of such institutions. (a) Control and support: In contrast with the grammar schools of England, which for the most part were controlled and supported by the Church, by guilds, or by private endow- ment, the Boston Public Latin School was established by the town. Since fees were regularly charged, the school can- not be said to have been free and public in the present-day sense. It was, nevertheless, a "town school" and in most respects justified its name "public." In the case of some other grammar schools bequests were frequently made to provide for their support, notably in the case of the gram- mar schools endowed by Edward Hopkins hi Hartford, New Haven, and Hadley. In many schools endowments were of such a character that, while the schools remained "public" schools in some respects, the immediate control was placed in the hands of trustees. (6) Aim : The definite aim of the Boston Public Latin School was to prepare boys for college (Harvard College was founded in 1636). This was the general aim of the Latin grammar schools of England and was the general aim 164 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION of those schools in America. It was explicitly so stated for the grammar schools of the Massachusetts Bay Colony by the law of 1647. (c) Curriculum : The curriculum of the Latin School, until a very late period (beginning of the nineteenth century), was almost exclusively classical and consisted in most cases solely of the study of Latin and Greek. One of the earliest known complete programs of the Boston Lathi School was that adopted in 1789. Excerpts pertinent to the present consid- eration follow, that as complete a view as possible may be given in brief space. The System of Public Education, adopted by the Town of Bos- ton, 15th Octob. 1789. I. That there shall be one school in which the rudiments of the Latin and Greek languages shall be taught, and scholars fully qualified for the Universities. That all candi- dates for admission into this School shall be at least ten years of age, having previously been well instructed in English Grammar; that they shall continue in it not longer than four years, and that they have liberty to attend the public writing Schools at such hours as the visiting Committee shall direct. [II-IV deal with lower schools only.] Votes of the Committee appointed to carry into Execution the System of public Education adopted by the Town of Boston, 15th October 1789, At a meeting of the said Committee, held Decemb. 1, 1789. VOTED, I. That the Latin Grammar school be divided into four Classes, and that the following Books be used in the respective Classes. 1st Class — Cheever's Accidence. Corderius's Colloquies — Latin and English. Nomenclator, ^Esop's Fables — Latin and English. Ward's Latin Grammar, or Eutropius. 2d Class — Clarke's Introduction — Latin and English. Ward's Latin Grammar. Eutropius, continued. Selectee e Veteri Testamento Historiae, or, Castilio's Dialogues. The making of Latin, from Garretson's Exercises. 3d Class — Caesar's Commentaries. Tully's Epistles, or Offices. Ovid's Metamorphoses. Virgil. Greek Grammar. The making of Latin from King's History of the Heathen Gods. SECONDARY EDUCATION IN AMERICA 165 4th Class — Virgil, continued. — Tully's Orations. Greek Testa- ment. — Horace. Homer. — Gradus ad Parnassum. The making of Latin continued. [Sections II-IV deal with the lower schools only.] V. That the following hours be punctually observed hi all the Schools, viz. From the third Monday in April to the third Monday in October, the Schools begin at half past 7 o'Clock, A.M. and continue 'till eleven, and begin at half past 1 o'Clock, P.M. and con- tinue 'till five. — That from the third Monday in October to the third Monday in April, the Schools begin at half past 8 o'Clock, A.M. and continue 'till eleven, and begin at half past 1 o'clock, P.M. and continue 'till half past four.1 No change was made from the purely classical course of the Boston Public Latin School until some time between 1814 and 1828 (during the headmastership of Gould), when arithmetic, geometry, trigonometry, algebra, and geography were introduced. By 1826 declamation, reading, English grammar, English composition, forensic discussions, history and chronology, the constitution of the United States and of Massachusetts were introduced. In the case of some Latin grammar schools such modifications in the curriculum were introduced earlier. 49. The Massachusetts Bay Colony law of 1647. While Harvard College had been established by the General Court in 1636 and legislation touching on education had occurred in 1641, 1642, and 1645, the earliest legislation in this coun- try which affected secondary education in any comprehen- sive way was the law passed in 1647 by the Massachusetts Bay Colony. This law (with spelling modernized) was as follows: It being one chief project of that old deluder Satan to keep men from the knowledge of the Scriptures, as in former times by keep- 1 The System of Public Education, adopted by the Town of Boston, 15th Octob. 1789. Quoted by Jenks, Henry F., Catalogue of the Boston Public Latin School, pp. 286-88. 166 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION ing them in an unknown tongue, so in these latter times by per- suading from the use of tongues, that so at least the true sense and meaning of the original might be clouded by false glosses of saint- seeming deceivers, that learning may not be buried in the grave of our fathers in the church and commonwealth, the Lord assisting our endeavors, — It is 'therefore ordered, that every township in this jurisdiction after the Lord hath increased them to the number of 50 house- holders,|shall then forthwith appoint one within then' town to teach all such children as shall resort to him to write and read, whose wages shall be paid either by the parents or masters of such children or by the inhabitants in general, by way of supply, as the major part of those that order the prudentials of the town shall appoint; provided, those that send their children be not oppressed by pay- ing much more than they can have them taught in other towns; and it is further ordered, that where any town shall increase to the number of 100 families or householders, they shall set up a gram- mar school, the master thereof being able to instruct youth so far as they may be fitted for the university, provided, that if any town neglect the performance hereof above one year, that every such town shall pay 5 pounds to the next school till they shall perform this order.1 In connection with this law certain important facts should be noted. The law represented the first comprehensive legis- lation for secondary education in America and established principles of general educational policy which were of far- reaching effect on American education. Therein it is to be observed that the school was a "town" or public school, although the law made it optional with towns whether fees should be charged or the support of the school be a town responsibility. It is further to be observed that the curricu- lum of the school was specifically defined as one designed to provide for admission to the college, which, at that time, could mean but one thing — the narrow classical curricu- 1 Records of the Governor and Company of the Massachusetts Bay in New England, November 11, 1G47, p. 203. SECONDARY EDUCATION IN AMERICA 167 lum. Still further it is to be observed that the law estab- lished a general system of secondary schools. All these features were later made to cover the state of Massachusetts, which until 1820 included Maine. 50. Further legal provision in Massachusetts. The essen- tial characteristics of the law of 1647 remained the basis of educational legislation in Massachusetts throughout the period of the Latin grammar school. Laws passed in 1671, 1683, 1701, 1718, and 1789 increased the amount of penalty for non-compliance with the requirement for the establish- ment of the grammar school. The law of 1683 provided for the establishment of two Latin grammar schools in towns of five hundred families or householders. The law of 1789 provided that "every town or district containing two hun- dred families, or householders, shall be provided with a grammar school Master of good morals, well instructed in the Latin, Greek and English languages."1 This law re- mained in force without material modification until 1827, but its operation was practically nullified by a law passed in 1824 which exempted towns containing less than five thousand inhabitants from maintaining a Latin grammar school on conditions easily met. Out of 296 towns enum- erated in the census lists of Massachusetts in 1820 be- tween 173 and 215 towns were required to maintain a Latin grammar school according to the law of 1789. By the law of 1824 all but seven (Boston, Salem, Nantucket, Newburyport, Charlestown, Marblehead, Gloucester) were released from the necessity by easy alternative conditions. The passage of the high school law of 1827 eliminated the Latin grammar school in Massachusetts as far as legal man- date was concerned. It is, perhaps, needless to state that the law requiring Latin grammar schools had never met with even a fair degree of compliance. 1 Laws of the State of Massachusetts, 1789, chap, xrx, sees. 1-6. 168 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION 51. Legal provision in other colonies. In the Plymouth Colony an attempt was made in 1667 to establish a gram- mar school and the General Court decided that each town of fifty families should raise funds for that purpose. The attempt was unsuccessful. In 1670 the Court granted profits from certain fisheries toward the establishment of a free school. The county of Plymouth embraced this oppor- tunity. After 1692 the Plymouth Colony was united with the Massachusetts Bay Colony and the laws of the latter were in effect in the whole State. Maine was a part of Massachusetts until 1820 and hence the legal provision for grammar schools was the same there as in Massachusetts. From 1641-1679 New Hampshire was also a part of Massa- chusetts and hence more or less affected by the legislation in Massachusetts. When the separation took place a general school law was passed (1680) in New Hampshire but that and subsequent laws were so neglected that in 1719 a law was enacted which was a close copy of the law of 1647 passed by the Massachusetts Bay Colony. The law of 1650 as passed by the Connecticut Colony was an almost verba- tim copy of the same law and this remained essentially the same throughout the colonial period. In Rhode Island no comprehensive legislation came about until 1800. Vermont was first settled in 1724 and its first law affecting general education did not come until the adoption of the constitu- tion of 1777. In Connecticut, in 1666, the united colonies were divided into four counties, with Hartford, New Lon- don, New Haven, and Fairfield the chief town in each and six years later the Court granted to each county six hundred acres of land "to be improved in the best manner that may be for the benefit of a grammar school . . . and to no other ase or end whatsoever." And it was ordered, further, "That in every county town there shall be set up and kept a gram- mar school for the use of the county, the master thereof 169 being able to instruct youths so far as they may be fitted for college." In the other colonies, while partial legislation was made at times, no such mandatory and comprehensive law was passed affecting secondary education directly within the period of the grammar school. It is to be noted that in Massachusetts the unit of the school system was the town. This was also true of New Hampshire and the earlier system of Connecticut. Later the county unit was employed in Connecticut. The county unit was also found in Maryland. 52. The Latin school in New England and elsewhere. The Latin grammar school developed first and at its best in New England and particularly in Massachusetts, although examples were to be found in most of the original colonies. Statistics concerning the establishment of secondary schools during the colonial period are difficult to secure, if indeed the requisite data exist. Small has estimated the number of Latin grammar schools in existence in New England up to 1700 at about forty, of which twenty-four were found in Massachusetts.1 Eight of these had been founded before 1650. Concerning grammar schools in the eighteenth cen- tury Small says: 2 Meanwhile (previous to the law of 1789) the term "grammar school" had practically disappeared from use, the district-school had taken away the central authority, the old form of school had been forgotten, and there was fastened upon the state the district- school system, which required fifty years of strenuous effort to dislodge. The grammar school had practically disappeared from New England at the end of the eighteenth century. While somewhat exaggerated, this statement is essentially correct. Just how much the district-school system had to 1 Small, W. H., "The New England Grammar School, 1635-1700," School Review, vol. x, pp. 513-31. 2 Small, W. H., "The New England Grammar School, 1700-1800," School Review, vol. xiv, pp. 42-56. 170 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION do with the downfall of the grammar school in New Eng- . land it would be difficult to determine. Its effect in that direction was probably not small. Two other powerful influences, however, were at work to interfere with the growth of the Latin school. The first was the fact that the school was designed for boys only who were preparing for college. The law reduced this limitation to an absurdity in Massachusetts where at periods apparently more schools were required than there were boys entering college in any one year during the colonial period.1 It must be remembered that the same law limited the aim of the grammar school to preparation for the university. Hence the social demand for grammar schools, in point of number, was far behind the legal requirements and the records are full of evidence of the constant endeavor by towns to evade the law and by the State to enforce it. The second factor interfering with the development of the grammar school during the last quarter of the eighteenth century was the growth of the academy. This movement will be outlined in following sections. It may be noted here, however, that the rise of the academy was probably as much a result as a cause of the failure of the Latin grammar school. II. THE ACADEMY 53. The origin of the academy in America. Fundamen- tally the origin of the academy movement is found in the social changes of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries which rendered the existing classical schools inadequate for contemporary needs. The breaking away from traditional schools was found in England in the rise of the academy as early as the beginning of the seventeenth century, in Scot- land about the middle of the eighteenth century, and in 1 Inglis, A. J., The Rise of the High School in Massachusetts, pp. 65-70. SECONDARY EDUCATION IN AMERICA 171 America about the same time. This movement was to some extent paralleled in Germany by the development of the Realschule as evidenced by Hecker's school in Berlin (established in 1747), which included in its curriculum, in addition to the classical studies, such subjects as German, French, drawing, geography, arithmetic, algebra, geometry, trigonometry, history, natural history, physics, and phil- osophy. The same tendency is found in the Scotch academy. ThusKerr:1 About the middle of the eighteenth century there was in many quarters a desire fqr schools with a more liberal and practical cur- riculum than that in use in the old grammar schools. "Academies" was the name chosen for such institutions. They were meant to supplement grammar schools by introducing commercial and science subjects, but in many cases they superseded them or became their rivals. Perth has thevhonor of being the oldest academy in Scot- land. It was founded in 1760. For more than two centuries secondary education in the American colonies was restricted to that provided in the Latin grammar school with its limited classical curriculum and its provision primarily for those who were destined to enter the higher professions through the college. By the middle of the eighteenth century it had become evident to many that such a school was inadequate for the needs of the American youth and that a broader form of secondary education was needed. The basis of the academy movement in America was, then, recognition of the need for a form of secondary education of broader scope and better suited to contemporary needs. 54. The Franklin Academy in Philadelphia. Nowhere did the reaction away from the narrow classicism of the Latin grammar school find a more enthusiastic proponent than in Benjamin Franklin. In 1743 Franklin drew up the 1 Kerr, J., Scottish Education, School and University, p. 162. 172 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION plan of an academy but did not publish it until 1749. In- struction in the Publick Academy in the City of Philadelphia began in 1751 with its three departments, the Latin School, the English School, and the Mathematical School. Shortly after the institution was reincorporated as the "College, Academy, and Charitable School of Philadelphia" and was given the power of conferring degrees. The charter of this "college" was revoked in 1779 and the University of Penn- sylvania established in its stead. It is evident that this academy was a different type of school from any previous institution. It should also be evident — and that fact has not always been properly recognized — that it was by no means typical of the academy as it developed in America. It is claimed that the Moravian Academy at Bethlehem was established in 1742, the Moravian school for girls in Germantown in 1742, and Nazareth Hall in 1743. It is not clear that those schools were of secondary-school rank. If so they antedated the academy at Philadelphia. 55. The academy in Massachusetts. The academy move- ment in Massachusetts had its beginning in the establish- ment of the Dummer Academy in South Byfield and of the Phillips Academy at Andover. Although the former was not incorporated until 1782 its history dates from the legacy of Lieutenant-Governor Dummer in 1761 and the opening of the school in 1763. Of the Phillips Academy at Andover the endowment was established by the execution of a deed of gift in 1778. In that year the school was opened and in 1780 the academy was incorporated. By 1800 seventeen academies had been incorporated in the State of Massa- chusetts. Before the founding of the first public high school more than thirty-six academies had been founded in the State — far more than the number of surviving Latin gram- mar schools. The growth of the academy movement in Massachusetts may be observed from the following table. SECONDARY EDUCATION IN AMERICA 173 TABLE LXXIV. ACADEMIES INCORPORATED IN MASSACHUSETTS, 1780-1870 * Dates Number Dates Number New Total New Total 1780-1790 6 11 11 8 32 6 17 28 36 68 1831-1840 46 21 19 10 114 135 154 164 1791-1800 1841-1850 1801-1810 1851-1860 1811-1820 1861-1870 1821-1830 * Compiled from data given in the Fortieth Report of the Massachusetts Board of Education, Appendix E, pp. 175-347. Here it may be noted that, as measured by the number of academies incorporated, the period of most rapid devel- opment in Massachusetts was 1826-35 when sixty acade- mies were incorporated within ten years, as compared with forty in the preceding forty-five years and sixty-nine in the succeeding forty years. This is, of course, not a fair criterion of the development and influence of the academy in that TABLE LXXV. ACADEMIES AND PRIVATE SCHOOLS IN MASSACHUSETTS f Number of academies Number of pupils Total pop- Pupilt per Year ulation of 10,000 Incor- porated Unincor- porated All Incor- porated Unincor- porated Att state population 1835 . 24,278 683,861 350 1840 . . 78 1,308 1,386 3,701 28,635 32,336 737,699 438 1845 . . 66 1,167 1,233 3,939 26,762 30,701 856,531 358 1850 . . 67 845 012 3,717 19,534 23,251 994,514 234 1855 . . 71 646 717 4,716 17,571 22,287 1,132,364 197 1860 . . 65 640 705 3,561 15,933 19,494 1,231,066 158 t Compiled from data given in the Abstracts of Massachusetts School Returns for the years 1834-60. For complete data see InglLs, A. J., The Rise of the High School in Massa- chusetts, p. 57. 174 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION state, but it is indicative of the general trend of the academy movement. Table LXXV shows the influence of the acad- emy in Massachusetts during the middle of the nineteenth century. Since younger pupils are doubtless included in large num- bers in these figures they cannot be interpreted with any exactness. Nevertheless they show clearly the great influ- ence of the academy and private schools at the middle of the nineteenth century and its decline as the high-school movement developed after 1840. The academy movement in Massachusetts developed somewhat earlier than in most parts of the country (New York State perhaps excepted). It also declined before the advance of the high-school move- ment at an earlier date. 56. The academy movement in other States. Apparently the sort of education introduced by the academy met a very definite need in the field of secondary education. Gaining an early and firm hold, especially in Massachusetts, New York, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia, and North Caro- lina, toward the middle of the nineteenth century the acad- emy had spread rapidly throughout the country. This is to be seen from the figures presented in Table LXXVI. In considering such figures it must, of course, be remem- bered that the number of academies existing in 1850 includes many which were institutions enrolling elementary- and secondary-school pupils or even elementary school students alone so that any direct comparison of conditions in 1850 and in 1910 would be quite unfair. Nevertheless the figures presented indicate the important position which academies had assumed in this country by the middle of the nineteenth century. The academy movement during the last half of the nine- teenth century was intimately related to the development of the public high-school movement and is best considered in that connection in later sections. SECONDARY EDUCATION IN AMERICA 175 TABLE LXXVI. SHOWING THE NUMBER OF ACADEMIES AND PUPILS ATTENDING THEM IN 1850. ALSO THEIR DISTRIBUTION WITH REFERENCE TO POPULATION. FIGURES ARE PRESENTED ALSO FOR PUBLIC AND PRIVATE SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN 1910-1911 FOR PURPOSES OF COMPARISON* Section of the Country Academies in 1850 All Secondary Schools 1910 Number of Population to each Number of Population to each Schools Pupils School Pupil Schools Pupils School Pupil 1,007 1,636 515 238 1,379 931 330 49 6,085 6,095 40,866 82,923 29,823 9,952 49,818 37,559 11,224 1,052 263,096 263,096 2,709 3,606 8,783 3,861 3,392 3,613 2,849 3,649 3,811 3,811 67 71 152 88 96 89 84 170 88 88 850 1,996 2,909 1,339 1,408 787 829 443 10,581 12,213 118,741 239,599 266,415 112,351 85,918 51,309 57,702 64,014 996,049 1,115,326 7,716 9,677 6,274 5,671 8,681 10,686 8,598 9,532 7,922 7,531 55 81 69 68 142 164 124 66 84 82 Middle Atlantic . . . East North Central West North Central South Atlantic .... East South Central. West South Central Other States States of 1850 All present States . . * Figures for the academies taken from the American Journal of Education, vol. i, p. 368 (reproduced by Dexter, E. G., A History of Education in the United States, p. 96). Figures for the schools of 1910-11 taken from Public and Private Schools, Bulletin of the Bureau of Education (1912), no. 22, p. 42. Figures for population taken from Report of the Thirteenth Census (1910), vol. I, pp. 30-31. Computation and compilation by the writer. 57. The control and support of the academy. By the end of the eighteenth century the Latin grammar school of the colonies had become an institution of the past except in a few important centers. The high-school movement did not gain any great impetus until after the middle of the nine- teenth century. Hence it is obvious that the academy was the dominant institution of secondary education in this coun- try from its inception in the last part of the eighteenth cen- tury until well into the second half of the nineteenth century. The Latin grammar school had been essentially a free public institution, controlled and supported by the town or state. The high school likewise was a free public institution in the fullest sense of the term. In contrast with 176 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION those institutions the academy was essentially a private institution in the majority of cases, the control being in- vested commonly in a board of trustees or other similar body. Nevertheless it is true that all degrees of private and public control and support were exemplified, ranging from com- pletely private and personal control to practically public control and supervision. In Massachusetts previous to 1797 seven academies had received state aid in addition to the rights of legal existence. In that year other academies petitioned the legislature for endowments and a committee was appointed to consider those petitions and outline a plan of the public policy with regard to incorporated academies. This committee reported February 27, 1797: On a general view of this subject, the committee are of the opin- ion that the system hitherto pursued, of endowing academies with State lands ought to be continued; but with several material al- terations; first, that no academy (at least not already erected) ought to be encouraged by government unless it have a neighbor- hood to support it of at least thirty or forty thousand inhabitants, not accommodated in any manner by any other academies, by any other college or school answering the purpose of an academy; secondly ^ that every such portion of the Commonwealth ought to be considered as equally entitled to grants of State lands, in aid of private donations; and thirdly, that no State lands ought to be granted to any academy but in aid of permanent funds.1 In the same report it was recommended that half a town- ship of six miles square of land in Maine (which was until 1820 a part of Massachusetts) be granted to each academy which met certain conditions regarding funds. Those recom- mendations were adopted and from this action of the legis- lature it would appear that the academy in Massachusetts 1 Report of the Committee, quoted in the Fortieth Annual Report of the Massachusetts Board of Education, Appendix E, pp. 207-09. SECONDARY EDUCATION IN AMERICA 177 was recognized as early as 1797 as fulfilling in some degree the function of a quasi-public institution and as one deserv- ing public support. That this view was accepted is clear from the following: The following principles appear to have been established, as de- termining the relations of the academies to the Commonwealth. They were to be regarded as in many respects, and to a considerable extent, as public schools; as a part of an organized system of pub- lic and universal education; as opening the way, for all the people, to a higher order of instruction than the common schools can sup- ply, and as a complement to them. Towns, as well as the Common- wealth, were to share, with individuals, the character of founders, or legal visitors of them.1 The organization of the academies as component parts of a comprehensive State system reached its highest level in New York State. In 1787 the academies in that State were made a part of the University of the State of New York which had been organized three years before. Here also the policy of endowing academies with State funds was adopted. In the earlier period special grants were made to academies, and a permanent fund, known as the Literature Fund, was established hi 1813. The organized system of academy sup- port and control which thus grew up in New York State was an important element prolonging the life of the academy and in some ways delaying the high-school movement in that State. The policy of aiding academies by State appropriations of public money or land was somewhat general throughout the country and such academies were regularly looked upon as quasi-public schools. It is to be noted, however, that in New York State only did the State exercise any sort of ade- quate supervision and control, so that in general we find 1 Report of the Committee, quoted in the Fortieth Annual Report of the Massachusetts Board of Education, Appendix E, pp. 207-09. 178 PKINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION the phenomenon of schools essentially controlled by private individuals, religious denominations, or self-perpetuating boards of trustees, in extensive amount supported by public money. 58. The curriculum of the academy. It was the design of the early founders of academies to establish schools, which, as contrasted with the Latin grammar schools, should provide a rather extensive training covering a number of subjects of study having value aside from preparation for college, courses of study which should be better fitted to the changed conditions of life and society, and be of prac- tical benefit to pupils in whatever kind of life they were des- tined to follow. This aim is manifest in the proposals pro- mulgated by Franklin and in all his activities connected with the academy at Philadelphia. It is also manifest in the constitution proposed by the founders of the Phillips Acad- emy at Andover wherein the aim was stated to be to lay the foundation of a public free school or ACADEMY for the purposes of instructing Youth, not only in English and Latin Gram- mar, Writing, Arithmetic, and those Sciences wherein they are com- monly taught; but more especially to learn them the GREAT END AND REAL BUSINESS OF LIVING ... it is again declared that the first and principal object of this Institution is the promo- tion of TRUE PIETY and VIRTUE; the second, instruction in the English, Latin, and Greek Languages, together with Writing, Arithmetic, Music, and the Art of Speaking; the third, practical Geometry, Logic, and Geography; and the fourth, such other liberal Arts and Sciences or Languages, as opportunity and ability may hereafter admit, and as the TRUSTEES shall direct. As early as 1799 we know that the following subjects were taught at the Phillips Academy at Exeter: the English, French, Greek, and Latin languages, geography, arithmetic, practical geometry, rhetoric, logic, natural philosophy (physics), history, astronomy, moral philosophy, and natu- SECONDARY EDUCATION IN AMERICA 179 ral law. At the same academy in 1818 were given studies in a "Classical Department" and an "English Department." The studies of the Classical Department were practically the same as those of the Boston Latin School of about the same time. The English Department included the following studies: For the First Year: English Grammar including exercises in Read- ing, in Parsing, and Analysing, in the correction of bad English; Punctuation and Prosody; Arithmetic; Geography, and Algebra through Simple Equations. For the Second Year: English Grammar continued; Geometry; Plane Trigonometry and its application to heights and distances; mensuration of Sup. and Sol.; Elements of Ancient History; Logic; Rhetoric; English Composition; Declamation and exercises of the forensic kind. For the Third Year: Surveying; Navigation; Elements of Chem- istry and Natural Philosophy with experiments; Elements of Mod- ern History, particularly of the United States; Moral and Political Philosophy, with English Composition, Forensics, and Declama- tion continued. The development of the academy coincided with the development of the newly established Republic and this movement was marked by the extended curriculum offered to boys and girls who were to become citizens of that Republic. It also coincided with the development of the sciences and the part played by them in the nineteenth century. This also was reflected by the curriculum of the academy. Subjects of study were constantly added to the curriculum until it covered almost every phase of learning. This is indicated by the range of subjects reported to the Regents of the University of the State of New York by the academies in that State in 1837: 1 1 Quoted from Monroe, P., Principles of Secondary Education, p. 58, with the permission of the publishers, The Macmillan Company. 180 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION Arithmetic, algebra, architecture, astronomy, botany, book- keeping, Biblical antiquities, biography, chemistry, composition, conic sections, constitution of the United States, constitution of New York, elements of criticism, declamation, drawing, dialing, English grammar, evidences of Christianity, embroidery, civil engineering, extemporaneous speaking, French, geography, phys- ical geography, geology, plane geometry, analytic geometry, Greek, Grecian antiquities, German, general history, history of the United States, History of New York, Hebrew, Italian, Latin, law (consti- tutional, select revised statutes, criminal, mercantile, Black- stone's Commentaries), logic, leveling, logarithms, vocal music, in- strumental music, mapping, mensuration, mineralogy, mythology, natural history, navigation, nautical astronomy, natural the- ology, orthography, natural philosophy, moral philosophy, intellec- tual philosophy, penmanship, political economy, painting, perspec- tive, physiology, English pronunciation, reading, rhetoric, Roman antiquities, stenography, statistics, surveying, Spanish, trigonom- etry, topography, technology, principles of teaching. With the radical changes in the curriculum came also tendencies to change the methods of teaching employed. About the curriculum of the Latin grammar school had been developed a body of traditional method which continued to be the method employed in the teaching of Latin and Greek and also was transferred to the newer language studies. The other subjects now introduced were not forti- fied with traditional methods and hence there was possible experimentation in the methods of teaching those subjects. Formal catechetical and recitation methods continued to be employed but some of the newer subjects demanded an emphasis on practical use that were not to be found in previous methods, e.g., surveying, navigation, the sciences, painting, declamation, stenography, bookkeeping, etc. In the case of political economy, evidences of Christianity, law, etc., the methods employed emphasized the acquisition of informational facts, frequently of a type wherein the text- book was arranged in question-answer form. Textbooks SECONDARY EDUCATION IN AMERICA 181 rapidly multiplied and introduced new methods, some of which were of temporary vogue while others influenced all later teaching. 59. Secondary education for girls in the academy. In colonial times secondary or higher education for girls was entirely lacking. In Dorchester, Massachusetts, the ques- tion of the admission of girls to the grammar school was raised at the time of the founding of the school, but it evi- dently did not result in any such provision. In 1784 the girls of that town were permitted to attend the grammar school (building?) in the summer, but it is doubtful that anything ever resulted from that privilege. Early in the history of the academy movement, however, we find acade- mies established for girls alone and for both sexes together. Of academies for girls alone the school at Germantown founded in 1743 may have been the first although there is some question of the character of that school. At any rate a school for girls was established by Dr. Rush in Phila- delphia in 1780. Of coeducational academies the Leicester Academy in Massachusetts was probably the first. That school was coeducational from its establishment in 1784. This was followed in Massachusetts by a number of acade- mies either for girls alone or for both sexes and the concep- tion of secondary education for girls was thus firmly im- planted in the public mind. Some of the academies established for girls were of a dis- tinctly inferior character to those for boys and emphasized particularly the "polite accomplishments" of the period. Foreshadowing these schools was a school such as that whose announcement is quoted by Monroe for the Armston School (1772), in which such subjects as the following were offered: l 1 Monroe, P., Cyclopedia of Education, vol. n, p. 120; courtesy of the publishers, The MacmUlan Company. 182 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION Petit Point in Flowers, Fruit, Landscapes and Sculpture, Nun's Work, Embroidery in Silk, Gold, Silver, Pearls, or embosed, Shad- ing of all kinds, in the Various Works in Vogue, Dresden Point Work, Lace Ditto, Catgut in different Modes, flourishing Muslin, after the newest Taste, and most elegant Pattern Waxwork in Figure, Fruit, or Flowers, Shell Ditto, or grotesque, Painting in Water Colours and Mezzotinto; also the Art of taking off Foliage, with several other Embellishments necessary for the Amusement of Persons of Fortune who have Taste. Such a school was the prototype of the later "finishing school." 60. Effect of the academy movement. The effect of the academy on the development of secondary education in the United States was both good and bad. On the credit side of its account may be placed at least four important contribu- tions which secondary education in America received from the academy movement: (1) it introduced, or at least met, the conception that secondary education should be provided for the large number of boys and girls not preparing to enter college; (2) it enriched and extended the course of study; (3) it introduced and developed secondary education for girls; (4) it popularized if not democratized secondary education in America and prepared the public mind for universal secondary education which was to be attempted later through the public high school. To these four contri- butions of the academy we may add another item in the fact that private initiative founded and fostered secondary edu- cation at a period when legislatures and local authorities failed to provide an institution adequate to meet the needs of society. For a period of more than three quarters of a century the academy was the dominant form of second- ary education in the country, during a large part of that time it was the only form of secondary education in many regions, and it exerted an influence on secondary educa- tion in the United States which lasted throughout the nine- teenth century in spite of the rapid growth of the public high school during the last half or the last quarter of that century. On the debit side of the ledger we must enter accounts against the academy of the following items: (1) The acad- emy was essentially a private, sometimes a denominational or at least a religious institution. The very fact that, while dependent on. private or denominational initiative and in- terest for establishment and control, academies were "to be regarded as in many respects and to a considerable extent, public schools; as a part of an organized system of public and universal education" constituted its worst defect. (2) With the possible exception of academies in New York State, the academies were not organized into a State system and standards were not established. (3) While the academies did popularize secondary education in the United States they did not democratize it in the sense that they equal- ized educational opportunity for all. Here two characteris- tics of the academy interfered: first, in spite of numerous free or nearly free scholarships, etc., the burden of expense fell on the pupil or his parents rather than on the public; secondly, since academies were located more according to the choice or whim of the founders and were in part "board- ing " schools, attendance at them was determined as much by their accessibility as by need and desire. This again affected the matter of expense. (4) While the academy did much to pave the way for the later public high school, both by establishing a form of organization, curriculum, etc., and by preparing the mind of the public for extensive secondary education, it also constituted the greatest impedi- ment to the early development of a really public secondary school. Though the high-school movement started at the beginning of the second quarter of the nineteenth century, its victory over the private school and academy was not 184 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION complete until the end of the century, if indeed it has yet fulfilled its destiny in that respect. In this connection it is worthy of note that practically every new movement in secondary education has begun in some private or semi-private institution and only gradually has been adopted by the public high school. Instances of this may be found in the manual training movement commercial education, vocational education and vocational guidance, the six-year high-school plan, and other move- ments. With the development of the public secondary school, many academies were absorbed into the public system, a few grew into colleges or other higher institutions, and many died through lack of support, high-school competi- tion, or for other reasons. The lessening importance of the academy and the private school and the increasing impor- tance of the public high school during the past quarter- century are best considered in connection with the history of the public high-school movement. In passing, however, it may be noted that non-sectarian private secondary schools (including academies) have decreased from 1182 schools with 57,385 pupils in 1895-96 to 662 schools with 51,215 pupils hi 1914-15, while sectarian secondary schools maintained by the Roman Catholic Church have increased from 271 schools with 11,728 pupils in 1895-96 to 975 schools with 56,182 pupils in 1914-15. Other sectarian secondary schools have increased but slightly. | III. THE PUBLIC HIGH SCHOOL 61. Secondary education in the early nineteenth century. Of the colonial Latin grammar schools a few only had sur- vived the educational decline in public education of the eighteenth century, the extension of the district system, SECONDARY EDUCATION IN AMERICA 185 and the rapid development of the academy in the late eighteenth century. Here and there, particularly in New England, a few of the grammar schools survived. The Boston Public Latin School renewed its power with impor- tant modifications under the able administration of Gould (1814-28) and several other Latin grammar schools con- tinued to flourish. However, the demands of society after the birth of the new nation had forever relegated the Latin grammar school as a general public secondary school to the history of the past. The institution which had replaced it met some of the newer conceptions of education, but the academy was essentially a non-public or at best but a quasi- public institution which could not satisfy the ideals of a thoroughly public secondary school. Hence there was need for a new type of secondary school which should involve the newer conceptions of the aims and methods of secondary education as exemplified in the academy and at the same time fulfill the requirements of a public institution. This idea was especially strong in Massachusetts and its accom- plishment there marked the beginning of the high school in America. 62. The English Classical (High) School of Boston. Sen- timent for this type of secondary school first bore fruit in Boston where the English Classical School was founded in 1821. The aim of those who advocated this school is indi- cated in the report of a sub-committee which had been appointed to consider the question of its establishment: The mode of education now adopted, and the branches of knowl- edge that are taught at our English grammar schools are not suffi- ciently extensive nor otherwise calculated to bring the powers of the mind into operation nor to qualify a youth to fill usefully and re- spectably many of the stations, both public and private, in which he may be placed. A parent who wishes to give a child an educa- tion that shall fit him for active life, and shall serve as a foundation for eminence in his profession, whether mercantile or mechanical, 186 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION is under the necessity of giving him a different education from any which our public schools can now furnish. Hence, many children are separated from their parents and sent to private academies in this vicinity, to acquire that instruction which cannot be obtained at the public seminaries.1 Its aim was further stated in the Regulations of the School Committee for 1833: It was instituted in 1821, with the design of furnishing the young men of the city who are not intended for a collegiate course of study, and who have enjoyed the usual advantages of the other public schools, with the means of completing a good English education to fit them for active life or qualify them for eminence in private or public station.2 Here it is to be noted that while the conception of college preparation as a function of secondary education was still held (and exemplified in Boston in the Public Latin School which still continued) there was introduced in public sec- ondary education the conception that another function was also involved in secondary education — that of providing training for boys destined for other walks of life, " whether mercantile or mechanical." This conception was in some degree reflected in the first course of study in that school: First Class: Composition; reading from the most approved au- thors; exercises in criticism, comprising critical analyses of the language, grammar, and style of the best English authors, their errors and beauties; Declamation; Geography; Arithmetic con- tinued. Second Class: Composition, Reading, Exercises in Criticism, Dec- lamation; Algebra; Ancient and Modern History and Chronology; Logic; Geometry; Plane Trigonometry, and its applications to mensuration of heights and distances; Navigation; Surveying; Mensuration of Surfaces and Solids; Forensic Discussions. 1 Report of the Sub-Committee quoted in Catalogue of the English High School, Boston, 1890. Also quoted by Brown, E. E., The Making of Our Middle Schools, p. 299. 2 Regulations of the School Committee (1833), pp. 14-16. SECONDARY EDUCATION IN AMERICA 187 Third Class: Composition; Exercises in Criticism; Declamation; Mathematics; Logic; History, particularly that of the United States; Natural Philosophy, including Astronomy; Moral and Po- litical Philosophy.1 In this course of study it is to be noted that the Boston school took over the newer subjects of study from the acad- emy, that great emphasis was placed on the study of Eng- lish, and that an attempt was made to provide a certain amount of "vocational education." The practical side of secondary education found manifestation in the study of English, in the mathematics to a certain degree, in naviga- tion, surveying (important in those days in New England), and in the sciences. This tendency was furthered in the course of study for 1823-24 when bookkeeping, "by single and double entry," "elements of Arts and Sciences," and "Practical Mathematics" were added to the program of studies, together with Natural Theology, Sacred Geography, and Evidences of Christianity — "vocational" and "moral" training at the beginning of the high-school movement. The school was first called "The English Classical School." The name "English High School" occurs first in the records of the Boston School Committee of June 23, 1824, and the term was in common use until 1832. In that year the original name was restored only to be changed once more in 1833 when the name "English High School" was for- mally adopted. 63. The Girls' High School of Boston. The secondary education of girls had been begun in the academy during the last part of the eighteenth century. The first public institution for the secondary education of girls was that established in Boston in 1826. Its character may be seen from the course of study adopted:2 1 Report of the Sub-Committee, mentioned i» note 1. 1 The High School for Girls, Boston: An Account (February, 1826). pp. 12-13. 188 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION First Year Required: No. 1. Reading. . .2. Spelling. . .3. Writing words and sentences from dictation. . .4. English Grammar with exercises in the same. . .5. Composition. . .6. Modern and Ancient Geog- raphy... 7. Intellectual and written arithmetic. . .8. Rheto- ric... 9. History of the United States. Allowed: Logic, or Botany. Second Year Required: Nos. 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 8, continued. . .10. Bookkeeping by single entry. . . 11. Elements of Geometry. . . 12. Natural Phil- osophy. . . 13. General History. . . 14. History of England ... 15. Paley's Natural Theology. Allowed: Logic, Botany, Demonstrative Geometry, Algebra, Latin, or French. Third Year Required: Nos. 1, 5, 12, 15, continued. . . 16. Astronomy... 17. Treatise on the use of globes. . . 18. Chemistry. . . 19. His- tory of Greece. . .20. History of Rome. . . 21. Paley's Evidences of Christianity. Allowed: Logic, Algebra, Principles of perspective, projection of maps, Botany, Latin or French. The success of this school was so great that more girls wished to enter than could be accommodated. This gave rise to the necessity of increasing the facilities for instruction in this school or of extending the scope of the elementary schools for girls — the writing and grammar schools. The latter course was adopted and the High School for Girls passed out of existence in 1828, not to be revived until the middle of the century, when it was reestablished as a training school for teachers. This had been one of its chief purposes in the original establishment. 64. The Massachusetts law of 1827. Six years after the establishment of the English Classical (High) School and the year following the establishment of the High School for SECONDARY EDUCATION IN AMERICA 189 Girls in Boston the State of Massachusetts enacted a law requiring the establishment of high schools throughout the State. That law (operative March 10, 1827) was the real beginning of the high-school movement and deserves some- what extended notice here. The part affecting secondary education directly reads as follows: And every city, town, or district, containing five hundred families or householders, shall be provided with such teacher or teachers for such term of time as shall be equivalent to twenty-four months, for one school in each year, and shall also be provided with a master of good morals, competent to instruct, in addition to the branches of learning aforesaid, the history of the United States, bookkeeping by single entry, geometry, surveying, and algebra; and shall employ such master to instruct a school, in such city, town, or district, for the benefit of all the inhabitants thereof, at least ten months in each year, exclusive of vacations, in such convenient place, or alternately at such places in such city, town, or district, as the said inhabitants, at their meeting in March, or April, annually shall determine; and in every city, or town, con- taining four thousand inhabitants, such master shall be competent in addition to all the foregoing branches, to instruct the Latin and Greek languages, history, rhetoric, and logic." 1 In spite of the various retroactive measures of 1829 (re- pealed 1835), of 1840 (repealed 1848), and 1850 (repealed 1857), this law remained the basis of all subsequent legisla- tion affecting secondary education in Massachusetts and a model for the country. Significant, however, were the pro- visions of the act of 1857 which changed the course of study so as to include algebra and the history of the United States in the curriculum of the elementary school, natural philos- ophy, chemistry, botany, Latin, and the civil polity of Mass- achusetts and of the United States in the curriculum of high schools of lower grade (in towns of five hundred families), 1 Laws of the State of Massachusetts, January Session, 1827, chap CXLIII, sees., 1, 19, 21, especially. 190 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION and French, astronomy, geology, intellectual and moral sci- ence, and political economy in the curriculum of high schools of more than four thousand inhabitants.1 After those changes no important modifications were made in the high- school law until the revision of 1898. The term "high school " does not appear in the laws which created that type of school in Massachusetts until 1840. In common use, however, the term was applied almost from the beginning in 1827 to designate the type of school referred to in the act of that year. The term was applied indiscrim- inately to schools in towns of five hundred families or those in towns of four thousand inhabitants and, although the law distinguished high schools of two different types, once a high school was established it tended to include in its curriculum all the studies prescribed for high schools of higher grade. Misuse of the term and evasion of the law were, of course, frequent. It is to be noted that, while no specific mention is made of boys and girls in the law, except as they were included in the phrase "for the benefit of all the inhabitants thereof," both girls and boys were regularly admitted to the high school from the very beginning. The absence of contemporary com- ment on this fact indicates how thoroughly the idea of coedu- cation had been inculcated through the academy movement. 65. The public high school in Massachusetts. The figures presented in the following table will fairly indicate the devel- opment of the high school in Massachusetts from the passage of the original law in 1827 up to 1865. By the latter date the high school had assumed a stable position in the State, the legal requirements regarding the establishment of schools had met with a fair degree of compliance, the list of subjects 1 Acts and Resolves, 1857, chap. 206, sees. 1, 2, 3. On the whole ques- tion of high-school legislation in Massachusetts see Inglis, A. J., The Rise oj the High Sdiool in Massachusetts, chaps, ii-m. SECONDARY EDUCATION IN AMERICA 191 to be taught had assumed a form destined to endure for the rest of the century, the graded-school system was well under way, the academy had begun to give way to the public high school as the preeminent institution of secondary education, and a favorable attitude on the part of the public toward the high school had been created. TABLE LXXVII. THE ESTABLISHMENT OF HIGH SCHOOLS IN MASSACHUSETTS * Census Number re- quired by law Established according to law Percentage meeting the law Established but not required Total number established 1830 35 3 8.6 0 3 1840 44 16 36.4 2 18 1850 76 42 55.3 5 47 1855 120 77 64.2 10 87 1860 128 86 67.2 16 102 1865 130 88 68.0 20 108 * Inglis, A. J., The Rise of the High School in Massachusetts, pp. 38, 42-45. The unstable status of some of the high schools established and the fact that in some cases the so-called "high schools" were so in little more than name render this table somewhat unreliable, but the general growth is obvious. It will be noted that for nearly a quarter of a century after the passage of the mandatory law for high schools the development was comparatively slow. There is abundant evidence that many factors combined to interfere with that development — the dominance of the academy, the prevalence of the "district system" for common schools involving a conflict of interest, control, and policy between the "town" high schools and the district common schools, the difficulty of meeting the man- date of the law in smaller towns and sparsely populated dis- tricts, the ever-present financial problem, the various reac- 192 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION tionary laws passed as relief measures in 1829, 1840, and 1850, the lack of any centralized authority until the estab- lishment of the Board of Education in 1837. The mere number of high schools is not a good measure of their real effectiveness. A better measure of the degree of their influence would be the extent to which they served the population. The following table will give an indication of the situation in Massachusetts in 1865. TABLE LXXVIII. DISTRIBUTION OF HIGH SCHOOLS IN MASSA- CHUSETTS ACCORDING TO POPULATION IN 1865 * Population Percentage of population served Total population of State, census of 1865 1,267,031 In towns required by law to maintain high school 961,297 75.9 In towns required to maintain high schools and meeting the law 828,643 65.2 In towns required to maintain high schools and not meeting the law 132,654 10.5 In towns not required to maintain high schools but doing so 37,238 2.9 Total in towns maintaining high schools 865,881 68 3 * Inglis, A. J., op. cit., p. 48. It has been intimated that many of the so-called "high schools " were not deserving of that title. This is undoubt- edly true, and it is a difficult task to judge the standing of some schools. Basing the estimate on a study of almost every report of every town in Massachusetts from 1827 to 1865, I feel safe in asserting that the number was certainly not less than sixty-three in 1861 and in all probability was far greater. The number sixty-three was determined from definite data preserved.1 1 Inglis, A. J., op. cit., pp. 49-51. SECONDARY EDUCATION IN AMERICA 193 In Massachusetts the public high school fought its way successfully against the academy much earlier than wap the case in most States. The following table presents data showing the status of the academy and the high school in Massachusetts, where the high school first developed, and in New York, where the academy gained its firmest foot- hold. TABLE LXXIX. GROWTH OF THE HIGH SCHOOL AND OF THE ACADEMY IN MASSACHUSETTS AND IN NEW YORK STATE* Massachusetts New Yolk Period High schools established Academies incorporated High schools established Academies incorporated Period Total Period Total Period Total Period Total Before 1820.. 36 52 1820-1840. . . 18 18 78 112 10 10 176 228 1840-1860. . . 94 102 30 142 31 41 183 411 * Cf. Inglis, A. J., op. cit., pp. 11, 46, 155. 66. The high-school movement in the United States. With a few exceptions the high schools of this country owe their basis in aim, theory, and practice to the high school first created and earliest developed in Massachusetts. For the first fifteen or twenty years after the beginning of the movement progress was slow. Previous to 1840 not more than eighteen high schools had been established in Massa- chusetts and probably a less number outside that State. Within the next two decades (1840-1860) the movement spread rather rapidly, especially in Massachusetts, Ohio, and New York. Next to Massachusetts, Ohio seems to have led 194 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION in the establishment of high schools, and the growth of the high school in that State is of particular interest. The move- ment there began with the establishment of the Central High Schools in Cleveland and Columbus in 1846. For the period up to 1860 the State Commissioner reported as follows: l There were few, if any, High Schools in the State fifteen years ago: and not more than twenty when our general school law was anacted in 1853. Since 1855 they have increased from 91 to 161, being an average increase of 12 per annum. During that time the teachers in these schools have increased from 196 to 319 and the pupils from 7522 to 13,183. Numerous estimates have been made of the number of public high schools established and maintained in various parts of the country for the period from the founding of the English Classical (High) School in Boston up to the year 1889-90 when the Reports of the United States Commissioner of Education began to give some data. None of those esti- mates appears to be very reliable. Commissioner Harris esti- mated the number of high schools in operation in the United States in 1870 at about 160 and those in operation in 1880 as about 800. 2 Those figures are undoubtedly a gross under- estimate, but how much so it would be difficult to say in the present state of our knowledge. Dexter has analysed the data given in the Report of the Commissioner of Education for 1902 to determine the number and distribution of the 3,179 public high schools reporting to the Department of Education the dates of their establishment. His table is reproduced on the following page. 1 Seventh Annual Report of the Ohio State Commissioner of Common Schools (1860), p. 45. Cf. also Inglis, A. J., op. cit., pp. 156-57. 2 Harris, W. T., "The Growth of the Public High Schools in the United States," Proceedings of the National Education Association (1901), p. 174. SECONDARY EDUCATION IN AMERICA 195 TABLE LXXX. ESTABLISHMENT OF PUBLIC HIGH SCHOOLS BY DECADES IN THE VARIOUS DIVISIONS OF THE COUNTRY* Decades North Atlantic South Atlantic South Central North Central Western Total 1820-1829 6 1 7 1830-1839 10 1 1 2 14 1840-1849 27 4 3 9 43 1850-1859 67 1 5 34 1 108 1860-1869 60 7 3 103 4 177 1870-1879 121 25 27 298 8 479 1880-1889 142 47 103 508 29 829 1890-1899 318 91 161 595 155 1320 1900-1902 31 17 30 93 31 202 Total to 1902. . 782 193 334 1642 228 3179 * Dexter, E. G., A History of Education in the United States, pp. 172-73. Cf. also Inglis, A. J., op. cit., p. 155. Although these figures are without exactness, they are io be considered as an underestimate rather than as too great and indicate the rapidity of the development of the high school in the last quarter of the nineteenth century. The same criticism applies to the figures given in Table LXXXI illustrating the development of the high school up to 1915. The nearer we come to the present the more reliable the figures become. With all due allowance for the inaccuracies in the data available and the difficulties of interpreting conditions, we may be justified in saying that the period from 1821 to about 1870 represents the period of the beginning of the high school movement for the country at large, the period of about 1870 to 1890 the period of growth and development, and the period from about 1890 to the present the period of the dominance of the public high school in the field of secondary education. 196 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION TABLE LXXXI. GROWTH OF THE PUBLIC HIGH SCHOOL, 1890-1915* Year Schools Teachers Students 1890-1891 2,771 8,270 211,596 1895-1896 4,974 15,700 380,493 1900-1901 6,318 21,778 541,730 1905-1906 8,031 30,844 722,692 1910-1911 10,234 45,167 984,677 1913-1914 11,515 57,909 1,218,804 1914-1915 11,674 62,519 1,328,984 * Figures taken from Report of the United States Commissioner of Education (1916), vol. n, p. 449. 67. The public high school and the academy. The devel- opment of the academy and its dominance in the field of secondary education in this country until well into the last half, or even the last quarter, of the nineteenth century have been outlined earlier in this chapter. That secondary schools established and controlled by private individuals or cor- porations, more or less supported by public funds, threat- ened to become the controlling type of secondary school in the United States is obvious from the data previously presented. This tendency the public high school was forced to combat and for more than half a century the outcome of the public high-school movement was dubious. However, by the middle of the last quarter of the nineteenth century we find the high school well in the lead and its ultimate victory over the academy and private high school well assured. The situation since that time is illustrated by the figures in Table LXXXIL With all due allowance for the incompleteness and inac- curacy of the returns made to the Federal Bureau of Educa- tion (especially for the earlier years), the growing influence of the public high school and its dominance over the private SECONDARY EDUCATION IN AMERICA 197 TABLE LXXXII. THE RELATIVE PROGRESS OF PUBLIC Ain> PRIVATE HIGH SCHOOLS, 1889-1915* Year Per cent of number of schools Per cent of number of teachers Per cent of number of pupils Public Private Public Private Public Private 1889-1890 60.75 68.37 75.22 82.32 85.15 83.85 39.25 31.63 24.78 17.68 14.85 16.15 55.85 62.26 66.82 74.29 78.90 81.68 44.15 37.74 33.18 25.71 21.10 18.32 68.13 74.74 82.41 86.38 88.63 89.55 31.87 25.26 17.59 13.62 11.37 10.45 1894-1895 1899-1900 1904-1905 1909-1910.. 1914-1915 * Report oj the United States Commissioner of Education (1916), vol. u, p. 449. secondary school is evident. There must always be some place for the private secondary school, and it is doubtful that the present status will ever greatly change. An extension of public supervision over privately controlled schools is prob- ably the next step rather than any form of repression or complete control on the part of the State. Since the public school must always determine its policy in terms of the larger group, some small proportion of children will always receive better educational opportunities in the smaller private school than in the public system. This fact, together with the facts that the complete exclusion of religion from the public school leads to the establishment of sectarian schools, and that educational experimentation is commonly more easily conducted in the private school, will doubtless encour- age the continuance of non-public secondary schools. 68. State systems of secondary education. In the United States there exists no Federal power or administrative ma- chinery, such as is found in some countries, whereby the centralized control or supervision of secondary schools can 198 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDAEY EDUCATION be developed. Control over secondary education as over other forms of secondary education is left to the several States. Some States have exercised that power extensively: other States have left the control of secondary education almost entirely to local school authorities. As a result there is found little uniformity in practice, and gross inequalities in educational opportunity are obvious. It has already been shown that from the passage of the law of 1647 second- ary schools in Massachusetts have been more or less con- trolled by the State. By the passage of the law of 1827 Massachusetts compelled the establishment of public high schools which were required to meet very specific demands as to curriculum, length of school year, etc., to that extent providing for a State system of secondary education. Not until 1902, however, did the State share directly in the sup- port of public secondary education. An anomalous situation arose in the early part of the high-school movement when the State lent financial support to private academies, while requiring communities to maintain high schools, but not sharing in the support of them. In other States comprehensive schemes for the State organization of all education, including the coordination of secondary schools with other divisions of education, were elaborated before the close of the eighteenth century or in the early part of the nineteenth century, although the actual carrying-out of proposed schemes failed or was developed later. Thus, in 1779 Jefferson presented a bill to the Legis- lature of Virginia which provided for elementary schools in each district in the State five or six miles square, for coordi- nated grammar schools at twenty centers in the State, and for the articulation of those schools with William and Mary College. Some of his proposals were incorporated in the law of 1796, but the scheme as a whole was not put into operation. SECONDAEY EDUCATION IN AMERICA 199 In 1784 the University of the State of New York was established and by 1787 it had assumed the fundamental characteristics of its present form. The University provided an elaborate form of control and supervision over all second- ary schools and most of the higher institutions of the State. It did not originally provide for careful articulation between the elementary school and the academy, in part because of the then existing emphasis on secondary education, and in part because at that time much of the present-day elemen- tary education was provided in the academy. Practically from the beginning assistance was rendered by the State to secondary education, and in 1813 a permanent "Literature Fund " was established which has always been applied wholly to the support of secondary education. The University plan was adopted in Georgia in 1785 in the Territory of New Orleans, in the University of Michigan in 1817, and the scheme may be traced in other States. While the development of State systems of secondary schools began in the legal mandate of Massachusetts in 1647, its progress has been more favorable where State support has been stressed instead of legal mandate and where control and supervision has been gained in large part through the granting or withholding of public State funds. In some States there has never been any legal mandate re- quiring the establishment of public high schools and then* development has been secured wholly or almost wholly by State aid encouraging local interest and support. Appar- ently the first example of a law providing for the appropria- tion of State funds to aid high schools (though the practice of granting aid through gifts of State money and land had grown up with the academy movement) was the act of the Legislature of Maine in 1871, which provided that the State should pay annually an amount equal to that raised by local taxation for a high school, that amount, however, not 200 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION to exceed in any one case $500. A somewhat similar pro- vision was made in Wisconsin in 1875, in Minnesota in 1878, and later in many other States. At the present time some form of State aid is provided in practically every Common- wealth, although the source of such funds, their amounts, and the forms of their distribution vary widely.1 Especially noteworthy has been the tendency to encourage vocational education by the granting of State aid. The fact that in most States legislation affecting the es- tablishment and maintenance of public high schools during the earlier period was permissive rather than mandatory and the fact that in some States no provision had been made, gave rise early to the question of the legal right on the part of communities and States to raise and appropriate money derived from taxation for the support of high schools. The issue was finally settled in the affirmative by the Supreme Court of Michigan in the so-called Kalamazoo High School Case and that decision became the legal precedent.2 NOTE: Consideration of many special phases of the later de- velopment of secondary education is deferred. Such problems as the historical relation of the secondary school and the college, the historical relation between elementary and secondary education, the historical development of various studies, the historical de- velopment of the curriculum organization, and like topics are considered in appropriate later sections. 1 On the whole matter of State aid for secondary education see: Cubber- ley, E. P., School Funds and Their Apportionment; Snyder, E. R., The Legal Status of Rural High Schools; Hanger, J. H., " The Legal Status of the High School," chap, in of Johnston, C. H. (Editor), The Modern High School. 2 30 Michigan 69. SECONDARY EDUCATION IN AMERICA *Ul PROBLEMS FOR FURTHER CONSIDERATION 1. Trace the legal status of the secondary school in America. 2. Trace the development of local or State control of secondary education in America. 3. In what ways did the academy movement affect secondary education in America? 4. Trace the development of secondary school controlled or maintained by religious denominations in America during the past two decades. (Cf. Reports of the United States Commissioner of Education (1895-96 to 1916.) 5. Trace the development of non-academic subjects in the secondary- schcol curriculum. 6. Trace changes in the methods of teaching subjects in the secondary school as indicated by the textbooks employed. (Cf. Inglis, A. J., The Rise of the High School in Massachusetts, chap, vi.) 7. Trace the development of the academy in any one State. 8. Trace the development of the high school in any one State. 9. Trace the development of rural high schools in any one State. 10. Trace the development of State aid to secondary education in the United States. 11. Consider any one problem in present-day secondary education and trace its history. SELECTED REFERENCES Boone, R. G., Education in the United States, especially chaps, i, in, v, XV, XIX, XXI. Brown, E. E., The Making of Our Middle Schools. Davis, C. O., Public Secondary Education. Dexter, E. G., A History of Education in the United States, especially chaps* i-xiv. Hinsdale, B. A., Documents Illustrative of American Educational History. Inglis, A. J., The Rise of the High School in Massachusetts. Jones, D. R., State Aid to Secondary Schools, University of California Pub- lications; Education, vol. 3, no. 2, pp. 47-150. Lull, H. G., Inherited Tendencies of Secondary Instruction in the United States, University of California Publications; Education, vol. 3, no. 3, pp. 155-281. Monroe, P., Principles of Secondary Education, chap. n. Philbrick, J. D., City School Systems in the United States, Bureau of Educa- tion Circulars of Information (1885), no. 1, especially pp. 22-32, 35-37, 69-89. Small, W. H., "The New England Grammar School," School Review, voL x, pp. 513-31; vol. xiv, pp. 42-56. 202 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION Snyder, E. R.f The Legal Status of Rural High Schools. Smith, F. W., The High School; A Study of Origins and Tendencies. United States Commissioner of Education, Reports. United States Bureau of Education, Circulars of Information. Several numbers contain the history of education in various States. Monroe, P., Cyclopedia of Education, articles on Grammar School, Academy, High School, etc. Extended bibliography: Brown E. E., The Making of Our Middle Schools, pp. 481-518 (to 1905) ; Smith, F. W., The High School; A Study of Origins and Tendencies, pp. 443^451 (to 1916). CHAPTER VI SECONDARY EDUCATION IN OTHER COUNTRIES 69. The comparative study of secondary education. The comparative study of institutions for secondary education in different countries is one of the most effective means of evaluating theories and practices in any one country. To the student of secondary education in America some knowl- edge of the organization of secondary education in foreign countries is of value for a number of reasons. (1) The person familiar with but a single type of institu- tion tends constantly to think in terms of that institution only, fails to recognize the existence of many problems in- volved in that institution, and lacks a basis for intelligent comparison of institutions of different types designed to accomplish somewhat like and somewhat different purposes. A basis for the valuation of theories and practices in Ameri- can secondary education is provided through the study of theories and practices obtaining in other countries. (2) Dominant social ideals and the form of social organi- zation differ in different countries, and the aims and organ- ization of secondary education should vary accordingly. Nevertheless certain fundamental social ideals are much the same in all countries and in all cases secondary education has some common purposes. A study of the various ways in which secondary education is organized to achieve those common ends is suggestive of fundamental theories and practices for the student of secondary education in America or any other country. (3) Many specific problems of theory and practice in- volved in secondary education in America at the present 204 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION time have in part originated in Europe. Instances may be found in connection with vocational education, continuation schools, methods of teaching foreign languages, economy of time in education, the earlier beginning of secondary edu- cation, etc. The development of many of these movements cannot be understood adequately without some knowledge of conditions affecting secondary education in certain European countries. (4) From time to time proposals are made for the adop- tion in America of certain practices found in other countries. In some cases those proposals are worthy of serious consid- eration. In other cases foreign practice is itself misunder- stood by those who advocate changes in America, or is so conditioned by factors peculiar to some one country that its adoption in America would be a gross mistake. The student of secondary education who is unacquainted with social and educational conditions in other important countries is at a disadvantage when called on to estimate the merits and defects of such proposals. It is the purpose of this chapter to provide some basis for the comparative study of secondary education. Space avail- able limits the number of secondary-school systems which can be considered and the amount of consideration which can be given to secondary education in any one country. Attention will be confined, therefore, to secondary educa- tion in Germany, France, and England — countries which are most suggestive to the student of secondary education in America. 70. Purview of secondary education in other countries. In different countries the organization of education is so varied that it is very difficult to make general statements concerning the institutions for secondary education. In many foreign countries two or more systems of education run somewhat parallel, separated by lines of social or IN OTHER COUNTRIES 205 TABLE LXXXIII. STATISTICS OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS* Countries Year of report Types of secondary schools Schools Pupils Austria-Hungary . 1910-11 484 162,796 Realschulen 189 62,508 Gymnasia for girls (Austria only) 24 3,254 Total 697 228,550 35 8,323 90 19,765 44 10,104 Middle-class normal schools 4 209 Total 173 38,401 Bulgaria 1911-12 Gymnasia 47 16,487 Lower middle schools 316 55,512 Special technical and other schools 155 9,492 Total 518 81,492 Denmark 1910-11 State schools 12 2,878 Private Latin schools 39 9,860 Private Realskole 126 17,815 Total 177 30,553 France 1913 Lycees for boys 112 82,879 Communal colleges 231 37,324 Secondary schools for girls 193 38,358 Total 536 138,561 Germany 1911 Gymnasia 524 160,237 223 70,357 167 75,832 Girls' Gymnasia 39 22,137 Total 953 328,563 Italy 1912-13 Ginnasi 553 49 784 Licei 239 15,136 Total 792 64,920 1913-14 33 2 817 Middle-class schools 105 15,807 Total 138 18 624 1910-11 338 31 399 1911-12 89 19 71C 1913 31 10 401 1912 393 137 594 276 76 971 Gymnasia for girls 779 292,353 Total 1448 506 918 1915 59 33 071 1914 77 24 364 1912 84 17 266 1913-14 316 131 242 High schools for girls 328 82,474 Total 644 13716 * Report of the United States Commissioner of Education (1916), vol. i, pp. 67-1-75. £06 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION economic cleavage. In few countries other than the United States, Canada, and Japan is secondary education se- quentially related to elementary education. Nevertheless Table LXXXIII may serve as an introduction to the con- sideration of secondary education in other countries. The reader is warned that in no country can the character of secondary education and its scope be appraised accurately from the data given. Secondary schools in the countries of Continental Europe are for the most part modeled on the type of the German Gymnasium and Realschule or on the type of the French lycee, so that the more extended consideration given to the schools of Prussia and of France in later sections will illus- trate the general principles of organization and education in many other countries of Continental Europe. Secondary education in England is of a noticeably different character than that of Continental Europe and will be given separate attention. I. SECONDARY EDUCATION IN PRUSSIA 71. The organization of school systems in Prussia. The German Empire comprises a number of more or less independent States (kingdoms, grand duchies, principali- ties, etc.), each of which controls its own system of education. In this respect the situation in Germany is somewhat the same as in the United States, where each State has entire control over its system of schools. However, since Prussia has about two thirds of the population of the German Em- pire, includes approximately two thirds of the total area, and has assumed a commanding lead in educational matters as well as in most political matters, the treatment of educa- tion in Germany given in the following sections will deal specifically with the Prussian schools as the type, with occa- IN OTHER COUNTRIES 207 sional references to differing conditions found in other States of the Empire. Although there is no centralized system of educational control in the Empire as a whole, the administration is rather highly centralized in separate States. Thus, in Prussia the central authority is vested in the Minister of Religious and Educational Affairs who is responsible to the King alone. In the ministry under his charge are three departments, one for religious affairs and two for educational affairs — com- mon schools and higher schools being controlled by different departments. In each of the twelve provinces which com- pose the Prussian Kingdom is a provincial school board having almost entire charge of all higher schools within the province. Through the department for higher schools in the State Ministry, through the provincial boards, and through the examining commissions, the centralized State control of higher schools is practically complete. The result is a system of standardized higher schools throughout the Kingdom of Prussia, manifesting a degree of uniformity in organization, administration, curricula, and all other matters, which is without parallel in any American State. Local school boards play an insignificant role in the control of higher schools. Municipalities may assume the initiative in the establish- ment of their own schools, but in such case they must con- form to the regulations of the provincial boards. They may decide what type of school shall be established, but once established the school must conform in every way to the minimum requirements set. Local authorities may select their own teachers, but the selection must be made from a list of eligibles prepared by the higher authorities. In all cases the action of the local boards is determined by stand- ards set up by higher authorities, and once the school is established little is left for the local authorities except to see that the work of the school f ulfills the demands set by State 208 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION and provincial officers and see that bills are paid. Their control over the professional side of the work of the school is nil. 72. The place of " higher schools " in Prussian education. In no State of the German Empire is there a division of elementary and secondary schools at all similar to that found in America. In Prussia there are really three almost entirely separate systems of schools: (a) schools for boys and girls of the common people, of which the basis is the " People's School " ( Volksschule) ; (6) higher schools for boys of the upper classes (Hohere Knabenschule) ; (c) higher schools for girls of the upper classes ( Hohere Madchenschule). Boys and girls of the lower classes enter the Volksschule at the age of six and continue there until they are about four- teen, after which, if they continue their school education, they enter continuation or vocational schools, middle schools, etc. Boys of the upper classes enter the higher school proper at the age of nine or ten and continue there for a six-grade course or a nine-grade course. To most of the higher schools for boys are attached three-grade prepar- atory divisions (Vorschule) in which boys are trained from the age of six to the age of nine and then pass directly into the higher school proper. Theoretically there is articulation between the third grade of the Volksschule and the first grade of the higher school for boys. Practically there is almost no articulation between the systems. Girls of the upper classes enter the Hohere Madchenschule at the age of six and remain there for twelve or more years according to the course chosen in the latter part of the school. A more detailed description of the various higher schools will be given later. From this preliminary description, how- ever, it should be clear that for different groups of pupils in Prussia elementary and secondary education (in the Amer- ican sense of the terms) are combined in each of the three IN OTHER COUNTRIES 209 systems mentioned. No greater mistake could be made (and it is a common mistake) than to confuse the Volksschide (also called the Elementarschide) with the elementary school in the American sense of the term, and to confuse the Hohere Schule with the secondary school in the American sense. 73. Higher schools for boys in Prussia. Higher schools for boys in Prussia are of three types: (1) the Gymnasium and Progymnasium, which are essentially classical schools of the older type; (2) the Realgymnasium and Realprogym- TABLE LXXXIV. PROGRAM OF STUDIES IN THE PRUSSIAN GYMNASIUM* VI V IV UIII 0/77 UII 077 UI 01 Total Religion 3 4 8 2 3 8 2 3 8 2 2 8 6 2 2 1 3 2 2 2 8 6 2 2 1 3 2 2 3 7 6 3 2 1 4) 2$ 2 3 7£ 6f 3 (3 4} 21 2 3 7f 6) 3 \3 V 2 3 7l 6j 3 I3 ii 19 26 68 36 20 17 9 34 18 4 8 259 27 (18) German* Latin Greek French. . . . 4 2 2 4 2 Historya Geography. . . . Mathematics. . Natural science Writing 2 4 2 2 2 4 2 2 2 Drawingb. . . 2 2 2 Total 25 3 2 25 3 2 29 3 (2) 30 3 (2) 30 3 (2) 30 3 (2) 30 3 (2) 30 3 (2) 30 3 (2) Gymnastics . . . Singing0. . NOTES: a. In the study of German for VI and V one hour per week is devoted to his- torical stories. b. Drawing is optional two hours per week each in U II to O I. c. After V singing is required of those possessing ability only. Brackets denote that a redistribution of time is permissible. Hebrew and English are optional for two hours per week in each of years O U to O I. * Lehrplane imd Lehraufgaben fiir die hoheren Schulen in Preusien (Berlin, 1901), pp. 5-7. The six-grade schools have exactly the same programs as those of the nine-grade schook from VI to U IL nasium, which are in part classical and in part modern; (3) the Oberrealschide and Realschule, which emphasize modern studies. The Gymnasium, Realgymnasium, and Oberreal- schule are nine-grade schools. The Progymnasium, Real- progymnasium, and Realschule are six-grade schools whose curricula correspond exactly to those of the respective nine- grade schools.1 Boys completing the six-grade course, if they continue their education, enter the seventh grade of the corresponding nine-grade school. Boys enter the preparatory department (Vorschule) of the higher school at the age of six and, after three years of study there, enter the higher school proper at the age of nine or ten. The complete higher school course has nine grades beginning with Sexta (the lowest, VI), and proceeding TABLE LXXXV. PROGRAM OF STUDIES m THE PRUSSIAN REALGYMNASIUM * VI V IV U11I 07/7 UII 077 U I 01 Total Religion 3 4 8 2 3 8 2 3 7 5 2 3 5 4 3 2 2 5 2 2 3 5 4 3 2 2 5 2 2 3 4 4 3 2 1 5 4 2 3 4 SI \3 5 5 2 3 4 l\ \3 5 5 2 3 4 41 3} (3 1 • 5 5 19 28 49 29 18 17 11 42 29 4 16 German a. Latin French English History3 2 2 4 2 Geography Mathematics . . Natural science Writing 2 4. 2 2 2 4 2 2 2 Drawing 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 Total 25 25 29 30 30 30 31 31 31 262 N NOTES: a. Music and gymnastics as in Gymnasium. Other notes as in Gymnasium, ex- cept that drawing (geometrical) is optional two hours per week from O III on. * Lehrpldne und Lehraufgaben fur die hoheren Schulen in Preussen (Berlin, 1901), pp. 5-7, Minor differences may be allowed in the Realschule. IN OTHER COUNTRIES 211 through Quinta (V), Quarto, (IV), Unter-tertia (U III), Ober-tertia (O III), Unter-sekunda (U II), Ober-sekunda (O II), Unter-prima (U I), and Ober-prima (O I). Thus the close of the six-grade school or course comes at the end of Unter-sekunda. The character of the different types of higher schools for boys may be seen best from the programs presented in Tables LXXXIV, LXXXV, and LXXXVI. The headings refer to the classes or grades mentioned and the figures refer to the number of periods per week devoted to the various studies. TABLE LXXXVI. PBOGBAM OF STUDIES IN THE PRUSSIAN 1 OBERBEALSCHULE * VI V IV UIII OIII U II Oil U 1 07 Total Religion 3 5 6 2 4 6 2 4 6 2 3 6 5 2 2 6 2 2 3 6 4 2 2 5 4 2 3 Bl M 2 1 5 6 2 4 4) M 3 1 5 6 2 4 4) 4f 3 1 5 6 2 4 41 4j 3 1 5 6 19 34 47 25 18 14 47 36 6 16 GermEna French English History8 ...... 3 2 6 2 2 2 Geography .... Mathematics . . Natural science Writing 2 5 2 2 2 5 2 2 2 Freehand draw- ini? 2 30 2 2 2 2 2 Total 25 25 29 30 30 31 31 31 262 NOTES: Same as for the Realgymnasium. * Lehrpldne und Lehraufgaben fur die hoheren Schulen in Preussen (Berlin, 1901), pp. 5-7. A tabulation of the total number of periods per week devoted to the various studies shows the difference between the three types of schools. 212 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION TABLE LXXXVII Gymnasium Realgymnasium Obenealsckule Religion 19 19 19 German 26 28 34 Latin 63 49 Greek 36 French 20 29 47 English (+ 6) 18 25 History 17 17 18 Geography 9 11 14 Mathematics 84 42 47 Natural science 18 29 36 Writing 4 4 6 Drawing 8 (+9) 16 ( + 10) 16 (+ 10) Totals 259 262 262 The Gymnasium of to-day is the lineal descendant of the old classical Gymnasium established before the Reformation. To it attaches all the prestige and support which comes from reverence for an old-established institution, and, since it receives the support of the military and aristocratic classes, it is preeminently the socially "select" higher school for boys in Germany. It has been mentioned in the preceding chapter that the movement away from the narrow classicism of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries was marked in Germany in the middle of the eighteenth century by the beginning of "real" schools (Realschuleri) . Their early promise was soon checked, however, and in spite of attempts at reform during the early part of the nineteenth century it was not until the ministerial order of 1859 that the mod- ern movement for the newer types of schools was officially recognized by the institution of the Realschule Erste Ord- nung and the Realschule Zweite Ordnung. The first of these schools was permitted to offer a full nine-grade course and IN OTHER COUNTRIES 213 later developed into the Realgymnasium. The second of those schools was a six-grade school. The Oberrealschule was created by adding three grades to that six-grade Realschule in 1882. After the establishment of the Oberrealschule the Realgymnasium in the opinion of many became a rather useless institution and in the Conference of 1890 its dis- continuance was recommended by a majority vote. The recommendation was not carried out, however, and the Realgymnasium continues to exist as a higher school occupy- ing a position midway between the Gymnasium and the Oberrealschule. In 1870 for the first time those who had passed the "leaving examination" (Abiturientenprufung) of the Realschule Erste Ordnung (later the Realgymnasium) were given access to the university, though to certain courses only. This privilege was extended to the students of the Oberrealschule in 1892 but it was not until the imperial edict of 1900 that limitations were removed and the three types of higher schools placed on practically an equal footing in Prussia. 74. "Reform Schools" in Germany. The limited articu- lation between the three types of higher schools for boys in Prussia and the consequent necessity for early decision as to the school or course to be pursued by any boy has led within recent years to attempts to modify existing institu- tions. As a result there have developed Reformgymnasien which have introduced two new principles: (a) the prin- ciple of a common foundation in the lower grades; (6) the principle of bifurcation in the upper grades. This means that the decision of an educational choice may be post- poned for some years and that two or more courses may be offered in one institution. Two general types of Reformgymnasien are found — the Frankfurt system and the Altona system. Of these the Frankfurt system provides a common foundation in the 214 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION earlier grades for gymasial and realgymnasial courses, and the Altona system provides a common foundation for real- gymnasial and realschule courses. The reforms inaugurated by these two systems are so important that they deserve some detailed consideration. The official program for the Frankfurt system is as follows: TABLE LXXXVIII. THE FBANKFURT PROGRAM * Subjects Lower Division Middle Division Upper Division Gymnasium Realgymnasium VI V IV V 111 0111 Ull Oil J7/ 01 Ull O// tf/ O/ Religion 3 5 6 2 4 6 2 4 6 2 3 (G2 }R4 JGIO }R s 2 3 G21 R45 GW) R B\ 2 3 2 8 8 2 3 2 8 8 2 3 2 8 8 2 3 2 8 8 2 3 3 6 2 3 3 6 2 3 3 6 2 3 3 6 German. French Latin Greek English 6 1 2 4 4 1 2 5 4 1 2 5 4 1 2 5 Geography. . . History 2 2 2 3 5 2 1 2 4 2 1 2 4 2 1 2 3 2 3 2 4 3 4 Mathematics.. Nature study.. Writing 5 2 2 5 2 2 2 Drawing 2 2 2 2 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 Physics 2 2 2 2 Chemistry. . . . * Statislitches Jahrbuch der hoheren Schvlen (1913-14), p. 1012, 8. G = Gymnasium, R = Itealgymnasium. It is to be noted here that all pupils take the same course in the first three grades and that the work in grades Unter- tertia and Obertertia differs only in the distribution of time between Latin and French. Thus differentiation is prac- tically postponed until the boy is the age of about fourteen. IN OTHER COUNTRIES 215 This type of school has become popular in Prussia, 133 having been established in that state by 1912. * TABLE LXXXIX. THE ALTONA PROGRAM * Subjects Foundation Realschule Realgymnasium VI V IV 2 3 5 4 HI II / UIH 0777 f/77 0/7 UI 07 Religion 3 4 6 2 3 6 2 3 6 5 2 3 6 4 2 3 5 5 2 2 4 3 6 4 5 2 2 2 4 3 6 3 4 2 2 3 4 3 5 3 5 2 2 3 4 3 5 3 4 2 3 4 3 5 3 5 2 3 4 3 5 3 5 German French English Latin History and Geo- graphy. . . 3 5 2 2 3 5 2 2 2 4 6 2 4 6 2 4 5 2 3 5 Mathematics . . . Nature study . . . Writing Drawing 2 2 2 2 2 3 9 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 Physics Chemistry. . . . * Siaiittitches Jahrbuch der koheren Schulen (1913-14), p. 1012, 8. The Altona system has not proved very popular, there being but five in Prussia in 1912, some of which have changed to the Frankfurt plan since then. According to figures presented in the Kommunales Jahr- buch for 1913-14 there were 184 Reformschiden in Germany in 1912, Prussia having 133.2 In spite of the rapid develop- ment of such schools, however, the older types of separated schools are dominant. How far they may be able to with- stand the encroachment of the Reformschulen must remain for the future to determine. 1 Statistisches Jahrbuch der hoheren Schulen (1913-14), p. 1012, 9. 2 Kommunales Jahrbuch (1913-14), p. 362. Cf. Statistisches Jahrbuch (1913-14), pp. 1012, 9-10. 216 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION 75. Higher schools for girls in Prussia. In considering the higher schools for girls in Prussia two important facts must be kept in mind. The first is that higher education for girls is a matter of recent development, its present organiza- tion beginning with the regulations of 1908. Hence higher education for girls in Prussia must be considered to be in a formative and experimental stage. The second fact is that higher education for girls is separate from that for boys and different in organization. Coeducation is practically unknown in Prussia. The central institution for the higher education of girls is the Lyzeum, which offers education, elementary and sec- ondary in the American sense of the terms, for girls from the age of six to the age of sixteen. Superimposed on this course is the Oberlyzeum which comprises two courses, one the Women's School (Frauenschule) with a two-grade course, designed to provide training in household and kindergarten arts, the other the Teachers' Training School (Hoheres Lehrerinnenseminar) with a four-grade course, designed to train teachers for the lower schools. In addition, for girls who plan to enter the university, there are higher-course schools (Studienanstalteri) which are essentially university preparatory schools. These correspond somewhat to the courses for boys in the Gymnasium, Realgymnasium, and Oberrealschule and are called by corresponding names. Girls taking the Oberrealschule course are transferred from the Lyzeum at the close of the eighth grade (minimum age four- teen years). Girls taking the Gymnasial or Realgymnasial course are transferred from the Lyzeum at the close of the seventh grade (minimum age thirteen years). Thus the Gymnasial and Realgymnasial courses for girls have six grades and the Oberrealschule course has five grades, all having a common basis in the Lyzeum. The general organization of higher schools for girls may IN OTHER COUNTRIES 217 be seen from the following diagram and the program for the Lyzeum. TABLE XC. THE ORGANIZATION OF HIGHER SCHOOLS FOB GIRLS IN PRUSSIA * Age 678 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 Grade X IX VIII VII VI V IV Lyzeum in n i f n i I Frauenschule 1 HI n 1 Sem. ( Lehrerinnenseminar • v iv m n n Oberrealachule Course |i Ober- IV III II 1 IV III II I nasial Course aastalten • Adapted from Statislischea Jahrbuch der kdkeren Schvlen (1913-14), p. 1012, 7. In the Frauenschule the course of study comprises peda- gogy (two hours per week in each of the two grades), house- hold arts, including practical work (five periods per week in each grade), kindergarten teaching, including practice work (four periods per week hi each grade), hygiene and the care of children, including practical work in nurseries, etc. (four periods per week hi each grade), civics and economics, including visits to institutions (two periods per week in each grade), household bookkeeping (one period per week hi each grade), needlework (two periods per week in each grade), and religion, German, French, English, Latin, Italian, history, geography, science, history of art, gymnas- tics, drawing and painting, music (each subject according to circumstances and needs; two periods each per week). In the Hoheres Lehrerinnenseminar the course of study includes three years of academic continuation work and one year of practical work. The studies of the three first years comprise religion, German, French, English, history, geo- graphy, mathematics, natural science, pedagogy, method 218 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION TABLE XCI. COURSE OF STUDY IN THE PRUSSIAN LYZEUM * a. Literary and Scientific Subjects Lower stage Middle stage Upper stage Total X IK Vlll VII VI V IV III II / VII-I Religion 3 10 3 9 3 8 3 6 6 3 5 5 3 5 5 2 4 4 4 2 2 3 3 2 4 4 4 2 2 3 3 2 4 4 4 2 2 3 3 2 4 4 4 3 2 3 3 17 32 32 16 13 14 21 17 German. . . . French English History* 2 2 3 2 2 2 3 2 Geography . . 2 3 2 3 2 Mathematics Natural Science . Totals 3 3 16 15 16 22 22 22 22 24 24 24 162 b. Technical Subjects Writing 3 9, 1 1 1 3 Drawing (h)' (M (M 9, 9, 9 9 2 2 2 14 Needlework Singing. . . 1 2 1 2 1 2 9, 2 9, 2 9, (c) 9, (c) 9 (c) 9 (c) 9 6(14) 14 Gymnastics 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 18 Totals. . . 9 7 6 9 9 9 7(9) 7(9) 7(9) 7(9) 55 (63) NOTES: a. Including art history. b. In classes X-VIII occasional drawing and clay modeling during the object lessons in German. c. Needlework is optional in the upper classes. * From Monroe, P., Cyclopedia of Education, vol. m, pp. 86-87. and model lessons, drawing, singing, gymnastics. The work of the practical year comprises method and model lessons, practice teaching, reports, and discussions. In the Studienanstalten the courses of study correspond in general to the courses of study in the boys' higher schools, IN OTHER COUNTRIES 219 though the entire course, including the Lyzeum grades, covers thirteen years instead of twelve and the number of recitations per week is somewhat smaller. Few higher girls' schools maintain Studienanstalten, however, and many girls find it practically impossible to secure the kind of education provided in such institutions. Since that is the only avenue of approach, they are unable to prepare themselves for work in the university. 76. Statistics of higher schools in Germany. In 1912 there were 1395 higher schools for boys in Germany, dis- tributed as follows: TABLE XCn. DISTRIBUTION OF HIGHER SCHOOLS FOR BOYS nsr GERMANY IN 1912 * State* Gymna- fien Real- gymna- sien Oberreal- schulen Progym- nasien Real- progym- nasien Real- schulen Totalt Prussia. ... 339 143 97 30 57 167 833 Bavaria 48 5 9 31 48 141 Saxony 19 21 5 5 33 83 Wiirttemberg 18 7 12 6 20 63 Baden 18 9 11 2 25 65 Other States 83 29 29 3 4 62 210 Totals 525 214 163 70 68 355 1395 • Statittischei Jahrbuch der huheren Schukn (1913-14), p. 1012, 5. From these figures it is evident that the Gymnasium with its classical curriculum is still the most prominent of the higher schools for boys. In Prussia the boys in attendance at the higher schools were distributed, as shown in Table XCIII, in 1912. In 1909 the distribution of boys according to grade was as shown in Table XCIV. About one half of the boys who enter Sexta of the Gym- nasium or Progymnasium apparently continue into Ober- TABLE XCIH. DISTRIBUTION OF BOYS IN HIGHER SCHOOLS IN PRUSSIA IN 1912 * 103,314 3,787 Both 107,101 50,319 Realprogymnasien . . . 4,346 Both 54,665 41 986 32,421 Both 74,407 195 619 Six-grade schools .... 40,554 Total 235,173 * Statiilisches Jahrbuch der hoheren Schulen (1913-14), p. 1012, 5. TABLE XCIV. f Grade VI V IV UIII 01 II VII on 13,616 UI 01 Total 36,949 34,697 34,492 31,184 27,619 23,775 10,222 8,304 220,959 t Cf . Monroe, P., Cyclopedia of Education, vol. in, p. 84. TABLE XCV. STATISTICS OF HIGHER SCHOOLS IN GERMANY IN 1911 J School* Teachers Pupils Public Private Public Private Public Private Schools having a nine-year course . . 914 524 223 167 1,186 81 63 629 413 828 39 789 15 6 3 4 124 7 1 103 13 373 5 S68 16,950 9,769 3,708 3,473 7,230 570 384 5,037 1,239 12,398 1,039 11,359 221 157 31 33 975 36 3 903 S3 4,599 64 4,535 306,426 160,237 70,357 75,832 170,908 9,509 7,252 104,457 49,690 234,461 22,137 212,324 2,905 2,451 304 150 16,562 1,095 32 14,989 466 79,679 1,399 78,280 Schools having a six-year course only Realschulen, Btlrgerschulen, etc. . Gytnnasion Higher schools Grand totals 2,928 512 36,578 5,795 711,795 99,146 t Figures quo irol. i, p. 822. ted from Report of the United States Commissioner of Education (1913), IN OTHER COUNTRIES 221 seJcunda and about one third continue into Oberprima. Of boys who enter Sexta of the Realgymnasium or Realprogym- nasium about one third continue into Obersekunda and about one sixth into Oberprima. Of boys who enter Sexta of the Oberrealschule or Realschule about one sixth continue into Obersekunda and a little over one sixteenth continue into Oberprima. Of all boys entering Sexta of a higher school a little over one third persist as far as Obersekunda and between one quarter and one fifth continue into Oberprima. Table XCV presents figures for all higher schools in Germany in 1911. 77. " Intermediate schools," etc., in Germany. As it is a great mistake to consider all the work of the "higher schools" of Germany as involving secondary education in the American sense of that term, so it is a great mistake to consider that all secondary education in Germany is con- fined to the higher schools above considered. In reality elementary education in the American sense of the term must be conceived as cutting a cross-section through the lower grades of all the higher schools previously considered and the Volksschule. Likewise secondary education in the American sense of the term must be conceived as cutting a cross-section through the upper grades of the higher schools above considered and also through a number of other schools, including the Intermediate Schools (Mittelschuleri) , "Citizens' Schools" (Burgerschulen, which are closely allied to the Realschuleri), certain vocational schools (including agricultural schools, Lantvnrtschaftsschulen, higher trade schools, etc.), continuation schools (Fortbildungsschuleri), etc. What proportion of the work in these last-mentioned schools should be considered of secondary grade in the American sense of the term it is impossible to determine. Nevertheless the fact should not be overlooked that much of the work peculiar to secondary education in America is 222 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION provided for in schools other than the higher schools com- monly classed under the head of "secondary schools" in Germany. Vocational education, for instance, is not pro- vided for at all in the Gymnasium, Realgymnasium, Ober- realschule, etc., but is relegated to special vocational schools. In Prussia, previous to the regulations of February 3, 1910, the intermediate school (Mittelschule} had been devel- oped less extensively than in other States of the Empire. Since the promulgation of those regulations, however, the Mittelschule has given promise of extensive development in Prussia and may in the future prove an important step in the articulation of the Volksschule system and the higher schools system. They comprise a nine-grade course which in the lower stages have a common course with the Volks- schule and in the higher grades may be articulated with the higher schools. The course includes the following studies: religion, German, Latin, French, English, history, geography, mathematics, nature study, and other common subjects.1 The importance of continuation schools in Germany may be seen from the figures presented in the following table. TABLE XCVL CONTINUATION SCHOOLS m GERMANY nsr 1911 * Schools Pupil* Industrial continuation schools 3,300 550,000 Commercial continuation schools 700 102,000 Agricultural continuation schools 5,200 84,000 Non- vocational continuation schools 16,000 700,000 Total listed 25,200 1,436,000 * Cf. Report of the United States Commissioner of Education (1918), vol. n, p. 818. The figures are in round numbers. 1 Cf. Monroe, P., Cyclopedia, of Education, vol. in, p. 78; Statistisches Jahrbuch der hoheren Schulen (1913-14), p. 2280 ff.\ Kommunales Jahr- buch (1913-14), p. 360. IN OTHER COUNTRIES 223 The organization of other vocational schools in the German States is too complicated to permit analysis here. It should be recognized, however, that they play an important part in the educational systems of the Empire of great importance to the student of secondary education. 78. Teachers in Prussian higher schools for boys. All teachers in the public higher schools of Prussia are State employees who have been certificated by the State author- ities. In order to secure such positions they must have shown their qualifications : (a) by presenting a leaving cer- tificate from a Gymnasium, Realgymnasium, or Oberreal- schide; (6) by presenting evidence that they have spent at least six semesters at a recognized university; (c) by pas- sing examinations in philosophy (including psychology), pedagogy, German literature, religion, and in the special subjects to be taught (at least two subjects must be in- cluded); (d) by spending a Seminarjahr (year in practice and observation); (e) by spending a Probejahr (trial year). Having met these requirements successfully, the candidate is then qualified for appointment and receives the title Ober- lehrer. Older teachers may receive the title Professor. The salary of the Oberlehrer begins at 2700 marks ($675) and by triennial increases of 700 marks ($175) reaches 4800 marks ($1200) after nine years of service. From that point the triennial increases of 600 marks ($150) bring it up to 7200 marks ($1800) after twenty-one years of service. To this must be added from 560 to 1300 marks ($140-$325) allowed as compensation for rent. These figures apply to the salaries of the ordinary teachers in boys' higher schools. Salaries of headmasters are not much higher than those of the higher teachers. In the higher schools for boys men teachers only are engaged. In the higher schools for girls both men and women teachers are employed, the latter having been pre- 224 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION pared either at the universities or in the higher normal school (Hoheres Lekrerinnenseminar} . The training of the higher-school teacher is thorough and adequate. His selection and certification are carefully super- vised. From those two facts result the high character of the teachers employed and the excellent teaching found. In spite of what appears to Americans to be a relatively low salary schedule, an abundance of excellent material is recruited. This arises in large part from the fact that the higher-school teacher in Germany is recognized as a pro- fessional official of the Government with a social and official position on a par with other higher professions. 79. Higher schools and the social organization. The schools of Germany are intimately and functionally related to the social structure to an extent not apparent in most countries. As evidence of this in Prussia we may note first the well-organized and standardized work of the schools under rather high centralization of control and adminis- tration, typical of the efficient organization of social and economic institutions in the State. Secondly, we may note the lines of social distinction manifest in the social organi- zation of the Prussian State and exemplified in the separa- tion of the Volksschule and the higher schools.1 Thirdly, we may note the powerful influence of the aristocratic and military classes in their struggle to maintain the supremacy of the aristocratic Gymnasium throughout the nineteenth century and the present status of that school. In the fourth place, we may note the characteristic German attitude toward women manifest in the failure until recently to pro- vide higher education for girls. In the fifth place, we may 1 As this book goes to press, there is evident in German pedagogical journals renewed agitation for the reorganization of German schools so as to establish an Einheitschule providing a common educational founda- tion for all pupils up to the ags of twelve. Cf. Kandel, I., School and Society, vol. v, p. 3. IN OTHER COUNTRIES 225 note the specific points of social organization in connection with the relation of the schools to the social and industrial phases of German life. These are manifest best, perhaps, in the various social, military, professional, and educational privileges granted to boys who have successfully completed specified parts or all the work of the higher schools. Boys who successfully complete the work of the first six grades of a higher school receive a certificate which entitles them to serve but one year in the army instead of two or more required of others. Also such boys have the privilege within limits of choosing the time of their military service, the regiment hi which they may serve, and other privileges of a military nature. In addition, since that certificate indi- cates a recognized standard of training, it is an indispensable requirement for many minor Governnent positions, and in many respects it functions much as a part of a civil service system. Hence also many mercantile houses require the possession of such a certificate of all their apprentices in many lines. Thus the acquirement of this certificate estab- lishes a well-determined point of demarcation in the higher- school system at the close of the sixth grade, noticeable not only in the organization of the six-grade schools, but also in the falling off of pupils at that point in the nine-grade schools. l At the end of the nine-year course comes the "maturity" examination (Reifeprufung). The passing of that examina- tion gives the boy the right of admission to the university or higher technical school, and a higher social recognition than he can otherwise secure. Since practically the only avenue to the higher professions lies through the university, it cannot be entered save by first completing the course of study in a higher school.2 1 Table XCIV. 2 For details of the privileges granted to boys completing various amounts of work in the higher schools of Germany see Statistisches Jahrbuch der hoheren Schulen (1913-14) . Cf . also Russell, J. E., German Higher Schools, Appendices. 226 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION Such privileges offer to the German boy and his parents an appeal that can scarcely be appreciated by the American. The ambitious parent struggles hard to give his son the benefits of an education in the higher school, although the financial burden of tuition alone is not always light. Con- trary to the American practice, but quite in accord with European practice, higher-school education is not free in Germany and tuition is regularly charged, the maximum in Prussia being 150 marks ($37.50) per annum. 80. Secondary education in Germany and America. Though the limits of space have permitted only a general outline of secondary education in Germany, sufficient data have been presented to indicate a number of important differences between secondary education in Prussia and in the United States. Some of the more important differences may be summarized here, though the reader should be warned that fundamental differences in organization make difficult comparisons which are frequently made. (1) Attention has already been called to the fact that "elementary education" and "secondary education" are not delimited in Germany as in America by administrative divisions. Elementary education in the American sense of the term is provided in each of the three systems of edu- cation previously outlined. Secondary education in the American sense of the term is provided especially in the two systems of boys' and girls' higher schools, but also to some extent in the intermediate schools and in vocational schools which are more directly correlated with the Volks- schule. To gain a purview of elementary education one must, therefore, examine a cross-section through all three systems of schools, and to gain a purview of secondary education one must examine the higher grades of the three systems. In either case it is quite impossible to designate a specific grade as the beginning of secondary education, which must IN OTHER COUNTRIES 227 be conceived as developing gradually out of the lower stages of education and without any line of clear demarcation. One of the most noteworthy features of the German school systems is the fact that whatever school system a boy or girl enters he proceeds gradually and without abrupt tran- sition from stage to stage. (2) Notwithstanding the above-mentioned facts it is true that "secondary education" begins at an earlier age and that differentiated education begins much earlier in Ger- many than in America. Here we may, in some respects at least, agree with a German critic: "Admittedly, the second- ary school in north Germany begins too early, when it starts at nine years of age; but just as surely does the American secondary school begin too late." x This problem will be considered in a later section. (3) Lines of social and economic cleavage are much more manifest and important in the schools of Germany than in the United States. This is clear from the separation, even in the earlier stages, of children in the Volksschule and the Hohere Schulen, in the fact that no form of vocational edu- cation is provided in the higher schools for boys, and in the fact that a relatively small number of boys and girls are enrolled in the higher schools. Confessedly, the German higher schools are designed not for people in general, but for special groups. Selection, a legitimate function of secondary education, becomes in German higher schools selection by elimination or exclusion, whereas in America it becomes selection by differentiation of courses and studies to meet the needs of individual differences. Because of dif- ferences in organization exact comparison between the- "higher schools" of Prussia and the public high schools of the United States becomes difficult, if not impossible. 1 Kerschensteiner, G., A Comparison of Public Education in Germany and in the United States, Bureau of Education Bulletin (1913), no. 24, p. 13. 228 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION Considering higher schools for boys alone in Prussia and the public high schools in the United States, we may note the following figures : TABLE XCVII. NUMBER OF BOYS PER 100,000 OF TOTAL POPU- LATION IN THE HOHERE ScHULEN OF PRUSSIA AND IN THE PUBLIC HIGH SCHOOLS OF THE UNITED STATES IN 1909 * Theoretic age 14-15 15-16 16-17 17-18 Total Americanhighschools....)^--;;;;; i »6 HI IV I-IV T, . ..... , ,„ (Grade... . U II Oil UI OI U II O I Prussmn higher schools . { Number 59 34 26 22 115 * Compiled by the writer from data in Table XCIV and in Report of the United, States Commissioner of Education (1910), vol. u. (4) Fixity of curriculum is the rule in German schools and flexibility is the rule in the American high school. In Germany the pupil chooses his school, in America he chooses his course or even his specific studies. In Germany, after a decision has been made as to the type of school to be attended, there is practically little opportunity for transfer to another type of school. This rigidity is all the greater because there is little opportunity for choice of studies within any higher school and the curriculum is the same for all. The contrast is noticeable with the elective system found in America. It is possible that the elective system has been carried too far in this country, but it would appear to the American educator that it has not been carried far enough in Prussia. The development of the Reformgymnasien in Germany indicates a strong tendency to modify the school system so as to postpone to a later age and grade the deci- sion of the curriculum to be engaged in by the pupil in the higher school. (5) While secondary education in America may, perhaps, be considered more extensive than secondary education in Prussia in point of the number of individuals that it reaches and in point of the differentiated scope of its offerings, it IN OTHER COUNTRIES 229 must also be noted that secondary education in Prussia (at least in the Hohere Schulen) is more intensive in the sense that it is more thorough and systematic. Perhaps the advantages and disadvantages in either case are necessarily correlated. The period of formal education covered from the beginning of school life in both countries is approxi- mately the same, from age six to age eighteen. The results, however, appear to be far different. The graduate of the German higher school is commonly considered to be as far advanced in his education as boys in the sophomore class of the American college. This is certainly true of much of his attainment in subject-matter, and with respect to the char- acter of his development along academic lines. Doubtless the reason for much of this is found in the fact that in Germany there is a longer school day, a longer school week, and a longer school year. However, it is also in part doubtless due to the efficiency of instruction. Critics of German and American school systems frequently note the lack of thoroughness and the superficiality in American secondary education in com- parison with the "hard fiber of intellectual discipline" of the German higher school. Likewise they note the greater freedom of the American secondary school, the individuality, initiative, and adaptability engendered by it (or by the general social stimulus?), in contrast with the rigidity and uniformity of the German higher school.1 The contrast should not be considered without reference to the conception of the intensive, selective aim of the German higher school and the extensive aim of the American high school. A proper comparison would be between the best fourth of the Ameri- can secondary-school pupils and the average pupil in the German higher school.2 It must further be noted that the last years of the German higher school take the place of a part of our college course, which is itself essentially second- 1 Kerschensteiner, G., op. cit., p. 14. 2 Cf. Table XCVII. 230 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION ary in character. In this connection attention may be called to the fact that, while the theoretic age of graduation from the German higher school for boys is eighteen, the median age is eighteen years and seven months. Figures for candi- dates taking the leaving examination of the higher schools of Prussia in 1908 indicate that more candidates were twenty years of age or older than were eighteen years of age or younger, and that the largest age group was that of the nineteen year olds.1 (6) In the secondary education of girls is found one of the most noticeable differences between the secondary schools of Germany and those of the United States. Attention has already been called to the fact that in Prussia public higher schools for girls is a matter of development within the past decade. Again exact comparison in figures is out of the question because of differences in organization, but we may note that in all the higher schools for girls in Germany in 1911 there were 234,461 girls distributed over twelve or thirteen grades, while in the public high schools alone of the United States in 1910 there were 551,624 girls, distributed over four grades. Attention has also been called to the fact that coeducation is all but unknown in Germany. (7) Probably one of the greatest factors contributing to the character of the German higher school is found in the character of the teacher, who, on the average, is far superior to the American high-school teacher. This is due to a num- ber of factors — the superior character of the material available (due in part to the prestige of the teaching profes- sion in Germany), the high standards set, the training which the prospective teacher receives, and the high professional spirit manifest. These standards and conditions are not paralleled in America. In this connection, however, it is well to note some circumstances sometimes overlooked. 1 Monroe, P., Cyclopedia of Education, vol. in, p. 85. IN OTHER COUNTRIES 231 The most important of these is the fact that the unparalleled development of secondary education in America and the great increase in the number of secondary-school pupils during the past quarter-century created a demand for secondary-school teachers which far exceeded the available supply of well-prepared men and women. With the high school now well established and conditions somewhat set- tled, with better facilities provided for training secondary- school teachers, and with the establishment of standards which are now being formulated, the secondary-school teacher of America should in the near future assume a more favorable position for comparison with his German colleague. (8) Back of all the various points of difference in the American and German school systems lie fundamental differences in social ideals which must always be kept in mind when comparing the two systems or when examining either. In both cases the character of secondary education is determined fundamentally by social ideals which are buried deep in the lives and customs of the two peoples. The efficiency of either system must be interpreted in terms of the dominant social ideals and the form of social organi- zation which determine the character of the State itself. II. SECONDARY EDUCATION IN FRANCE 81. The system of education in France. Of all important countries France possesses the most highly centralized form of educational control and administration. In that country the entire system of public education is under the charge of the Minister of Public Instruction and Fine Arts and his subordinate officials or bureaus. By them the final control and administration of the schools is determined, the pro- grams of study organized, the schools inspected, the quali- fications of teachers prescribed, and the examination of 232 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION pupils controlled. Little is left for local participation in the affairs of education except a certain amount of initiative in establishing schools, the administration of certain routine matters, and the payment of funds in support of the schools. The local community may decide whether or not a school is wanted in some cases. They may provide for the construc- tion, equipment, and maintenance of a school, but once such a school is established its control and administration passes out of their hands into the hands of the Ministry of Public Instruction and Fine Arts. France, like Prussia, maintains three separate systems of schools: (a) schools for boys and girls of the common people, of which the basis is the "primary school" (ecole primaire); (6) "secondary schools" for boys (lycee de gar- Qons and college de garqons); (c) "secondary schools" for girls (lycee de jeunes files, college de jeunes files, and cours secondaire de jeunes filles) . Boys and girls of the common people enter the "primary school" proper at the age of five or six (many have previously attended the ecole maternelle), where they remain in the ecole primaire elementaire up to the age of about thirteen or in the ecole primaire superieure up to the age of about fifteen. Some enter the ecole practique (vocational school) . Boys of higher social or economic stand- ing enter the "secondary school" (lycee or college) proper at about the age of ten and remain there (for the full course) up to the age of about seventeen. To the "secondary school" proper, however, there is attached a preparatory division (division prSparatoire) for boys of ages six to seven, and an elementary division (division elementaire) for boys of ages eight to nine. In some cases an "infant class" pre- cedes the preparatory division. As a matter of fact the French "secondary school" for boys is an institution com- plete in itself, being neither dependent on the "primary school" for its supply of pupils nor leaving education other IN OTHER COUNTRIES 233 than professional for later study in college or university. Theoretically pupils may pass from the "primary school" to the lycee or college and "secondary education is coordi- nated with primary education in such a way as to follow a course of primary studies normally four years in length." 1 Practically there is no such articulation between the two systems and few "primary-school" pupils, except those receiving Government scholarships through competitive examinations, pass from the ecole primaire to the ecole secondaire. The selection of the school which a boy may enter in France is determined almost entirely by social and economic factors. Girls of the higher social and economic classes enter the "secondary school" proper (lycee, college, or cours secon- daire) at the age of about twelve. They enter the "primary classes" of that school, however, at the age of nine, and the "infant class" which precedes it at the age of eight. They remain hi the "secondary school" (for the full course) up to the age of about seventeen or eighteen. From this limited preliminary description of the three school systems of France it is apparent that, as in the case of the Prussian systems, the so-called "secondary schools" must be considered to include both elementary and second- ary education in the American sense of those terms and that the "primary school" of France is not to be considered as corresponding completely to the "elementary school" of America. In this connection it is interesting to note that a plan for a unified national school system was presented before the Chamber of Deputies in a bill introduced in 1913: The professed intention of the bill is to establish equality of opportunity for all children. For this purpose its author would put an end to the dualism of the existing system which provides 1 Decret du 31 Mai, 1912. Cf. Plan d'Etudes et Programmes de I'En- seignement Secondaire des Garqons (llth edition), p. 1. 234 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDAEY EDUCATION for one kind of school for the masses and another for those favored of fortune, and substitute "the national school," organized in three cycles. In the plan outlined by M. Buisson, the first cycle is devoted to elementary primary education to be given uniformly to all children five to eleven years of age; the second cycle is for children from eleven to fourteen years of age; in this cycle the education will be varied according to the requirements or aptitudes of the pupils, but hi spite of these pedagogic differences perfect social equality will be maintained; in the third cycle education will be distinctly vocational (prqfessionelle), the term being used in the widest sense.1 Whatever may be the likelihood that education in France will be developed along these lines in the near future, it is nevertheless true that the intent of the bill represents the attitude of many people in France toward the existing tri- partite system of schools, with distinctions based largely on social and economic considerations. 82. Types of " secondary schools " for boys in France. The system of "secondary education" for boys in France at the present time is that inaugurated by the regulations of May 31, 1902, as modified by the regulations of Novem- ber 15, 1912, which went into effect in October, 1913. According to those regulations, two types of "secondary schools" are recognized, the lycee and the college. These differ not so much in the character of their courses nor in their general organization, but in the manner of their establishment and support. The lycee is entirely a state school, established, directed, and financed by the National Government. The college is a secondary school of the same character in general established and supported by a com- mune (municipality), but under the surveillance, direction, and control of the central authorities. Thus schools of both types are under the direction and administration of the 1 Report of the United States Commissioner of Education (1913), vol. i, p. 799. Cf. Revue Universitaire (March 15, 1913), pp. 5252-55. IN OTHER COUNTRIES 235 state and conform to the same general regulations as to curriculum, organization, administration, etc. While the two institutions are nominally of equal rank and are de- signed to provide similar education, the lycee stands higher in popular estimation and commonly is superior in the char- acter of the work done. Theoretically at least, uniformity is the rule in the lycee and college and the same standards obtain in all parts of the Republic, conf orming to the particular and minute regulations of the central authorities. The "secondary" school proper consists of two depart- ments called cycles, one (premier cycle} of four grades, the other (seconde cycle) of three grades, — the two (which are sequentially related) providing education for boys of ages about ten to seventeen or eighteen. To the first cycle are commonly attached a preparatory department (division preparatoire) of two grades (ages six and seven) and an elementary department (division elementaire) of two grades (ages eight and nine). In the first cycle, comprising grades sixth to third, pupils have a choice of two sections (A and B), Division A studying Latin and Division B not. In the second cycle, comprising the second, first, and philosophy- mathematics classes, a choice is offered in classes second and first of four sections (A, B, C,« D). Roughly those sections may be classified as: Section A — Classical Course; Section B — Latin-Modern Language Course; Section C — Latin- Scientific Course; Section D — Science-Modern Language Course. In the Philosophy-Mathematics "form" pupils are divided into two general groups, one concentrating on philosophy, the other on mathematics, each of these groups being divided into Sections A and B. The general scheme may be seen from the plan of organization outlined on page 236.1 In addition to these regular divisions and sections there 1 Plan d'£tudea, etc., previously cited, p. x jf. en JB i a PH 9) • i — e? y a 3 3 U g B J3 a a 1 ao J | 3 8 '? a ti 0 0} 3 -5 3 Q V x n V 3 .2" da « d •s si 1 a •S ~s d a •| '| ,M a •p* o s) ^ £ i il S i 1 /-~ U c ^ 1 to & a French, mor C a 1 i I by some in (' Section Latin-Scie Section •5- II i a 3 a | 1 «« 1 a 1 « i O 1 ^ 1 Q ! .2 3 | 1 ^^ ^ 5 O do •-• 4) J O f-| f.j § 3 13 a i "^•S Ve .s J ne group of arithmetic, ne group of paratory Di Latin begun Section A Classical 1 Section A O O 'S'S «f S52S S c 3 i .1 9. "2 V OJ jj jfll •o -S 0 'S ' II || 'S S *3 ^ •*§ s §'§ 2 52 K* SOC"H 00 CH £s 1 oo o « ^ i 2 i 1 1 •i t o § .£.2 •3 ^ & Sis d •a * Is il 2 P A w K oQ IN OTHER COUNTRIES 237 may be special sections in the lycee preparing boys for the military school at Saint-Cyr, the polytechnique, and the ecole centrale. In some cases also there may be a fifth section or subsection with a course of three or four years correspond- ing roughly to the Realschule course in Prussia. It is to be noted that a much greater amount of flexibility is to be found in the French higher school for boys than in the German. The feature of flexibility was established in the reorganization of the curriculum of the school in 1902, and its introduction in part may have been due to the in- fluence of the elective system in the American secondary school. Speaking of the curriculum established in 1902, M. Gabriel Compayre, former Inspector General of Public Instruction in France, said: The most striking feature is that, in place of one single and uniform course for all pupils, several are provided for their selec- tion. Here is obvious the influence of the elective courses common in the United States, whose existence and success were noticed by the present writer in the Report on American Secondary Education, presented after his return from the World Exposition at Chicago to the Minister of Public Instruction in France in 1893. 1 More detailed analysis of the French lycee is presented on page 238. 83. Other forms of secondary education in France. While the term "secondary education" (enseignement secondaire) is applied in France exclusively to the lycee and college, certain types of schools also found in France must be considered as furnishing education more or less secondary in the American sense. The necessity of providing for an extension of school facilities for the common people some- what beyond the primary schools and with special reference to their industrial needs was recognized as early as the pas- sage of the Law of 1833 (the Guizot Law) authorizing the * Cf. Monroe, P., Cyclopedia of Education, vol. n, p. 663. - co • >iooo^c>(t~*co * - o o o •* <0 W 00 05 OO -r-lf- a 9 c ca «s ; • <* oo ^fi a« I-H ooo< •<» s iguages ar 0 £ £ - »*. .„.. :« » nodern lai 2 3 £ N( - « • 'Kscoeoa* -a< a "o E o o ^ 1 C 8 H ->• — :*— :" . ek take four ssian, Arab Program of S~< O „« ;a,OT^^ . =5 ^f -I- ^>O> -O« • ^ ^••*IOo eo eo or-ir-ia»o 1 ;s s '3 v o C » 242 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION TABLE CI. FRENCH SECONDARY SCHOOLS AND PUPILS IN 1912-13 * Schools Pupils Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total Lyc6es 112 53 165 62,092 19,898 81,990 Colleges 230 79 309 36,796 11,882 48,678 Secondary courses 57 57 5,565 5,565 Total 342 189 531 98,888 37,345 136,233 * Figures taken from Annuaire Statistique, vol. 32, pp. 26-31, 24 *. French, secondary schools for boys seven grades or more are included and in the secondary schools for girls eight or more grades are included, whereas in the American high school but four grades are considered. It cannot be considered that the needs for secondary education in France are being met in any adequate manner. This is in part due to the social distinc- tions already referred to, in part to the inadequate provision for secondary schools, and in part to the fact the secondary education in France is not free. Combined with those fac- tors is the fact that the French lycees and colleges are in part boarding-schools, a fact which seriously affects the matter of popular education. Approximately one third of the pu- pils in the lycees and colleges, for boys are boarders or half boarders. This fact indicates clearly that schools are not numerous enough nor located centrally enough to meet the needs of many, and that the cost of living away from home prevents many boys from receiving the benefits of a second- ary education. The actual fees charged, however, are not large from the American viewpoint. In the provincial lycees the range of fees is from 40 francs ($8) per annum for day IN OTHER COUNTRIES 243 pupils to 700 francs ($140) per annum for boarders in the infant classes and from 320 francs ($64) per annum for day pupils to 1250 francs ($250) per annum for boarders in the highest classes. In Paris and the larger lycees the fees are somewhat higher. 86. The secondary-school teacher in France. As in Germany so in France the character of the teaching staff stands out in strong contrast to the character of the teaching staff of the American secondary school. This is due to sev- eral factors, the principal of which are the training which the secondary school teacher in France must undergo, the relatively small number of teachers required, and the esteem and honor hi which the profession is held. Due in part to the two last factors the competition for secondary school positions is so severe that the best material for teachers is secured through the elimination of the poorer. In point of professional requirements the minimum qualifications of a candidate to teach in the secondary school are: (a) the bachelor's degree from a lycee or college; (6) two or three years of university or normal-school study. This accomplished the candidate receives a licence. The holder of a licence may then become a candidate for the title of agrege which requires the passing of a severe competitive examination necessitating at least two years' preparation. Holders of this title only are appointed to positions in the lycees where the professeur agrege has a legal right to a posi- tion as professor with practically life tenure. The standards for teachers in the college are distinctly inferior to those for teachers hi the lycee, a fact which to some extent explains the acknowledged inferiority of the work done in the former. In the college, in addition to some professeurs agreges and those holding the master's degree, are found some teachers holding the bachelor's degree only or those with special certificates. 244 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION Again as in Germany the salaries paid appear small to the American teacher. All teachers in the secondary schools are divided into six classes. The teacher must have been at least two years in service before he is eligible for promotion from the sixth class (the lowest) into the next class. He must have been nineteen years in the service before he can be promoted into the first (highest) class. For full professors in the lycees (who receive the highest salaries for teaching alone) the pay ranges in the provincial schools from 3700 francs ($740) to 6700 francs ($1340). In Paris the salary for the regular professor ranges from 5500 francs ($1100) to 9000 francs ($1800), professeurs agreges each receiving 500 francs ($100) additional. Women teachers in the secondary schools for girls secure appointments by completing the work of the secondary school and securing its diploma and by securing the agrega- tion. Ordinarily the certificate to teach in the girls secondary school is obtained after completing the second year of work in the normal school and passing competitive examinations. 87. Secondary education and the social organization in France. France in the not very distant past has at different periods been a monarchy, an empire, and a republic, and each of those stages through which French society has passed has left its mark on the secondary schools of France at the present time. The social distinctions manifest in the differentiation between "elementary schools" and "second- ary schools" is in part at least a result of the days of the monarchy and aristocratic prestige. The high degree of centralized control shows the effect of Napoleon's admin- istration during the First Empire. Recent reorganization and numerous separate movements indicate an attempt (rather than its fulfillment) to adapt the secondary schools to the demands of a modern republic. A form of secondary education adapted to a republican IN OTHER COUNTRIES 245 or democratic form of social organization would appear to postulate at least three important characteristics: (1) schools free to all children and open to all classes on an equal basis; (2) schools sufficient in number to afford adequate means for educating as many children as can attend and so located that undue expense is not to be incurred by their parents; (3) schools and courses so diversified as to meet the needs of all classes of children. In no one of those three important respects can the French Republic be said to have approached the solution of democratic or republican education. Fees are regularly charged; secondary schools are quite insuffi- cient in number and not satisfactorily distributed; while the curricula established in 1902 did much to provide flexibility of studies adapted to the diversified needs of pupils, insuffi- cient provision has as yet been made for many forms of education, and in the case of girls unjust discrimination has been made with regard to provision for education leading to the university. 88. Secondary education in France and America. Much that has been said in comparing secondary education in Germany and in America may also be said in comparing secondary education in France and America. Thus second- ary education in France and in Germany differs from that in America in the following important respects: (a) the triple school systems running more or less parallel and with- out effective articulation; (6) the separation of those sys- tems along lines of social and economic cleavage; (c) the separation of secondary education for boys and girls; (d) the earlier beginning of secondary education hi the schools; (e) the absence of administrative division between elementary and secondary education in the American sense of those terms, and the gradual transition from lower to higher forms of education; (/) the complete separation of vocational schools from other schools; (gr) the intensive education pro- 246 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION vided in the higher schools leading directly to professional work in the university without the interposition of college; (K) the existence of uniform courses of study for all schools of the same type; (i) the high character of the teaching staffs; (j) the fact that the number of "higher schools" is relatively small and that a relatively small number of boys and girls are enrolled in higher schools other than special vocational schools, etc. Go vernmen tally France is republican or democratic: educationally it is aristocratic. In many respects France and America have common fundamental problems to solve through education and in no small degree through secondary education. As at present organized the secondary schools of France are better suited to a non-democratic form of society than to a republic, are more comparable to those of mon- archal states of Europe than to those of America, and in organization and administration have little to offer to the student of secondary education in America. III. SECONDARY EDUCATION IN ENGLAND 89. Organization of secondary education in England. In Germany and in France the State control of secondary education was early assumed and at present is practically complete, with the result that secondary education in those countries may be interpreted in terms of organized systems wherein uniformity and standardization are the rule. In England, on the other hand, there has always been manifest a reluctance on the part of the State to assume the respon- sibility for a real public system of education. Thus it was not until 1870 that any real system of elementary schools was inaugurated and it was not until 1902 that any real progress was made in the establishment of a system of public secondary schools. Even at present it is scarcely possible IN OTHER COUNTRIES 247 to speak of a system of secondary schools, but several differ- ent types or systems must be considered. In England more than in any other country private initia- tive has controlled education and particularly secondary education. From the beginning of secondary education in that country dominant control in the field of secondary education has been exercised by the clergy, by corporations (independent foundations, guilds, etc.), and by individuals. During the latter half of the nineteenth century municipal- ities assumed more and more influence. Only within the past few years has any serious attempt been made to organ- ize national control over any part of secondary education. In the following sections two general classes of secondary schools of England will be considered briefly: (1) Endowed and private schools, with particular attention to the "great public schools" of the "first grade"; (2) secondary schools which have to some extent come within the supervision of the Government and are on the "grant list" or the list of "efficient" schools. 90. The "Great Public Schools" of England.1 For more than five centuries after their beginning in 1382 the "great public grammar schools" were the dominant institution for secondary education in England and then* unchallenged preeminence continues at the present time. In 1867 the 1 The reader familiar with the nomenclature of American schools must beware of misinterpreting the nomenclature of the English schools. The term "public" is applied in England to the endowed schools here mentioned which are just the reverse of the "public schools" of the United States. Since the majority of those schools are boarding-schools, the American reader is likely also to misinterpret the term "board schools," which is regularly applied in England to schools under the control of school boards and has nothing to do with boarding-schools. The term "grammar schools" is to be understood from the old Latin grammar school and, of course, has no reference to the term as employed in the United States for the "gram- mar" grades of the elementary school. Further, "preparatory schools" in England prepare for the "great public schools," not for the university as the "preparatory schools" in America prepare for college. 248 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION British Schools Inquiry Commission placed those schools in an exclusive class comprising the "first-grade" secondary schools, a distinction which obtains informally at present. In this group the following (and no others) were included: Winchester (founded in 1382), Eton (1440), Shrewsbury (1552), Westminster (1560), Rugby (1561), Harrow (1571), Charterhouse (1611), St. Paul's (1509), Merchant Taylors' (1561). Of these all except the two last-mentioned are boarding-schools. The historic importance of these schools, the selected class of their patronage, and the superior char- acter of the education provided has given them a preeminent position among the secondary schools not only of England but of the world, and justifies the view which regards them as national institutions. They occupy a position in England that is paralleled by no other institution for secondary edu- cation in any other country and their influence on English history and on English society has probably been greater than any other institution. Any complete analysis of their place among the schools of England would carry us far beyond the limitations of our present purpose. We may note, however, certain material points. Schools of that type cannot properly be considered as an important part of a system of public secondary schools which is designed for boys in general. The opportunity for secondary educa- tion in such schools must perforce be limited, highly selec- tive, and restricted. Although they are termed "public schools," they are essentially private, and stand in strong contrast to the secondary schools of Germany, France, and America. It may well be questioned whether the exist- ence of such highly selective schools not directly controlled by the State have not acted as a serious check on the develop- ment of a system of real public secondary schools. Needless to say, schools of this type are conservatively classical and are dominated by preparation for entrance to IN OTHER COUNTRIES 249 the university. Programs of study and organizations differ for the several schools so that it is impossible to present even a typical program. Language, especially the ancient languages, and mathematics all but monopolize the cur- riculum. According to the specialist in education in foreign countries (United States Bureau of Education) a typical program comprises the following subjects: 1 Classical side: Religion, English, Latin, Greek, French, his- tory, geography, arithmetic, mathematics, natural sciences, drawing, singing. Modern side: Mathematics, English, Latin, French, German, history and geography, natural science, draw- ing, singing. Boys enter these schools at the age of thirteen or fourteen after a "preparatory" course in one of the numerous pri- vate "preparatory schools" which exist almost solely for the purpose of preparing boys for admission to the endowed schools. Nominally there are six "forms " or grades, though the lowest is frequently omitted and in some schools other forms are missing. Grading and promotion are flexibly organized and administered and it is possible for each boy to pass through the school much according to his individual ability and application. However, if he reaches the sixth form early he commonly remains in that grade until about the age of eighteen or nineteen when he enters the univer- sity. 91. Other endowed and private secondary schools. In addition to the nine "great public schools," comprising the group of "first-grade secondary schools," there is a very large number of other endowed, proprietary, and private secondary schools. Some of these endowed schools are of 1 Report of the United States Commissioner of Education (1916), vol. I, pp. 676-77. 250 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION a character quite comparable to that of the "first-grade" schools except, perhaps, in historical and social prestige. Proprietary and private schools controlled by individuals, stock companies, etc., range all the way from very good to very bad. Their varied character prevents anything like satisfactory analysis in small space. In general these schools all imitate the great public schools. Some of the best in every important respect should be ranked on a par with the "first-grade" schools. At the other extreme are schools which must be considered as commercial ventures of a per- nicious character. Between the two extremes are found schools of all sorts and grades. 92. The old municipal " board " secondary schools. While there was no serious attempt to develop a national system of secondary schools in England until the period 1899-1902, and while the numerous endowed and private secondary schools dominated the field, many municipalities throughout the country had established public "board" schools under the control of local authorities. Their char- acters varied widely according to the different communities, and uniformity was not to be found. With the beginning of the development of a national system in 1899-1902 those "board" schools were merged into schools of the type con- sidered in the following section. 93. " Grant-list " and " efficient " secondary schools. The beginning of a system of public secondary schools in England is found in the creation of a Board of Education for England and Wales in 1899 which provided a centra! agency for educational affairs. By the law of 1902 the con- trol of non-private secondary schools was taken out of the hands of the older school boards and placed in the hands of county and county-borough councils. That act provided : l 1 Report of the United States Commissioner of Education (1914), vol. i, pp. C8G-87. IN OTHER COUNTRIES 251 The local education authority shall consider the educational needs of their area and take such steps as seem to them desirable, after consultation with the board of education, to supply or aid the supply of education other than elementary, and to promote the general co-ordination of all forms of education. In accordance with this law new schools of secondary character supported by public funds have been established and others brought within the scope of State-aided second- ary education. The Board of Education has adopted a scheme of granting national funds to local schools as a means of bringing the secondary schools under its supervision and to some extent under its control. The acceptance of aid from the Board of Education and submission to its super- vision is voluntary on the part of the school authorities, but when the school accepts grant aid it must meet the require- ments and submit to the supervision of the national author- ities. This method of increasing the State control of second- ary education has been successful in American States and bids fair to establish a real system of secondary schools in England and Wales. Within about a dozen years after the beginning of the movement its success has been great. According to the latest official returns (before the war) the number of secondary schools in England receiving grants was 898, including 402 controlled by local authorities, 424 endowed schools, 26 schools belonging to the Girls' Public Day School Trust, and 46 controlled by Roman Catholic orders or communities. These schools enrolled 158,832 pupils (85,110 boys, 73,722 girls) and employed 9126 full- time teachers and about 3000 part-time instructors.1 These are known as "grant-list" schools. In addition there are a number of private secondary schools which invite the inspection of and a certain amount of supervision by the 1 Report of the United States Commissioner of Education (1914), vol. i, pp. 687-88. 252 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION Board of Education but which do not conform entirely to the requirements for grant aid. These are known as "effi- cient" schools. Altogether in 1913-14 there were 1176 secondary schools in England, with an enrollment of about 222,275 pupils, in some relation to the Board of Education.1 However, the majority of private schools do not come within this system. The reader will not fail to note that the situation in Eng- land at the present day is somewhat analogous to the situa- tion in the United States in the middle of the nineteenth century when the public high school was in the midst of its struggle for supremacy with the private academy. He should note also that the regulations of the Board of Edu- cation provide that a certain proportion of places in the grant-aided secondary school (ordinarily about twenty-five per cent) must be open free to the class of children that attend the public elementary school. Thus, although falling far short of thoroughly democratic ideals of free public education, the regulations of the Board of Education have greatly improved the opportunities of the common people for secondary education. 94. The curricula of English secondary schools. It is totally impossible to speak of the curriculum of the English secondary school in the definite sense in which one may speak of the curriculum of German or French higher schools. In the more prominent endowed and private schools there is a certain amount of uniformity determined by the fact that they have a common aim — preparation for the uni- versity. The conservative character of the older schools will probably change only as the spirit of modernism affects the universities. In the lesser private schools the curricula vary more or less according to the particular classes of patronage invited or given. In the grant-list schools there is 1 Report of the United States Commissioner of Education (1916), vol. i, p. 677. IN OTHER COUNTRIES 253 manifest a tendency to develop greater uniformity, although that is far from having been consummated at present. The Board of Education defines a secondary school as one which offers to each of its pupils a progressive course of instruction ... in subjects necessary to a good general education, upon lines suitable for pupils of an age range as wide as from twelve to seventeen. If such a school is to receive "grant aid" the following subjects must be offered and are obligatory: English lan- guage and literature, at least one language other than Eng- lish, geography, history, mathematics, science, and draw- ing. A curriculum including two languages other than English, but making no provision for instruction in Latin, will only be approved where the board are satisfied that the omission of Latin is for the educational advantage of the school. Instruction in science must include practical work by the pupils. Adequate provision must be made for organ- ized games, physical exercises, manual instruction, and sing- ing. Schools for girls must offer practical instruction hi domestic subjects, such as needlework, cookery, laundry work, housekeeping, and household hygiene. Considerable latitude is allowed the local authorities to adapt the cur- riculum to special local needs. 95. The secondary education of girls in England. As in all countries of Europe the education of girls was long de- layed in England. There, too, as in America, Germany, France, and other countries, secondary education for girls began as a result of private initiative. The movement was particularly noticeable in the decade or so preceding 1892 when endowments had been established for about forty- five girls' schools. The Girls' Public Day School Company (Trust), one of those semi-private, semi-public school societies which have been so active in the educational his- 254 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION tory of England, established thirty-four schools between 1873 and 1897. Many of those schools, together with others, came under the regulations of 1902 regarding grant aid, and thus came more or less into the public "system" in the sense previously suggested. While coeducation is by no means the usual practice in secondary schools in England (quite the opposite, of course, in endowed and private schools) economic factors have affected the situation in many smaller communities and even in some of the larger towns. Of the 928 schools in England and Wales which were recognized by the Board of Education as "efficient" in 1909-10, there were 150 schools in which boys and girls were taught together throughout the school and 23 in which they were taught together in some classes. 96. Secondary schools and other departments of educa- tion. The absence of an organized system of education in England necessarily means a lack of close articulation between the various departments. The more prominent en T ^ M U 1 •5 * 1 £ u 1 •5 3 -S. b 1643-1645 70.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 15.0 1696-1700 .... 65.6 1.6 3.1 4.7 1.6 9.4 14.7 1746-1750. .. 37.9 7.5 15.8 4.2 9.2 6.2 2.5 16.7 1796-1800 . . . 21.4 30.5 8.4 5.7 5.6 1.1 .1 2.4 .1 24.7 1846-1850 . . . 23.1 25.8- 10.8 10.1 10.0 1.8 1.5 2.9 1.9 13.1 1871-1875. .. 16.7 28.1 8.5 13.2 16.4 1.2 2.4 2.4 2.5 8.4 1896-1900. .. 5.9 15.6 6.6 26.7 18.8 1.0 3.5 .7 1.1 18.9 * Burritt, B. B., Professional Distribution of College and University Graduates, Bureau of Education Bulletin (1912), no. 19, p. 144. The effect of the development of higher education for women may be observed in the proportion of college graduates becoming educators. With the introduction of differentiated courses in the college and with the development of special colleges, such as those for engineering and agriculture, there grew up differ- ent sets of admission requirements and a lack of uniformity therein. Eventually the variation in admission require- ments resulted in an intolerable burden on the secondary schools. 130. The amount of preparation required. Recent at- tempts to secure a certain amount of uniformity and stand- ardization in college admission requirements have led to substantial agreement in defining those requirements in terms of "units." "A unit represents a year's study in any subject in a secondary school, constituting approximately a quarter of a full year's work." l This assumes that the length of the school year is from thirty-six to forty weeks, that a period is from forty to sixty minutes in length, and 1 Bureau of Education Bulletin (1916), no. 20, p. 8. RELATION TO HIGHER EDUCATION 317 that the study is pursued for four or five periods a week; but under ordinary circumstances, a satisfactory year's work in any subject cannot be accomplished in less than one hundred and twenty sixty-minute hours, or their equiv alent.1 A large proportion of colleges and universities now state their requirements in terms of units as thus defined. Current practice regarding the amount of preparation re- quired by standard colleges for admission may be seen from the following table. TABLE CIX* Number of units required 7 t '1 il ' Num- ber 14 14.5 15 15.5 16 16.5 17 17.5 Aver- age Colleges of liberal arts. . . . 204 39 31 116 5 12 0 0 1 14.8 Colleges of engineering . . . 85 27 5 50 0 3 0 0 0 14.7 Colleges of agriculture. . . . 31 9 1 21 0 0 0 0 0 14.7 Total 320 75 37 187 5 15 0 0 1 14.7 * Kingsley, C. D., College Entrance Requirements, Bureau of Education Bulletin (1913), DO. 7, p. 7. It will be noted that one college only (Bryn Mawr) re- quires more work than can readily be accomplished by the high-school pupil in his four-year course. Hence, with respect to admission requirements, such' difficulties as may be found in articulating the secondary school with the col- lege are to be found in the character and distribution of the units required rather than in the amount of preparation demanded. 131. "Prescribed," "Accepted," and "Elective" sub- jects. Much more important than the question of the amount of preparation for admission to college (where the amount is reasonable) is the question of the amount of ri- gidity or flexibility found in those requirements. When all 1 Bureau of Eucation Bulletin (1916), no. 20, p. 8. 318 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION subjects required for admission to college were prescribed and the amounts of material to be mastered in those sub- jects were fixed, the secondary school which desired to fit any of its pupils for admission to college was under the necessity of determining its curriculum on the basis of the college admission requirements, to the detriment of those pupils not destined for a college education. Such rigidity, once the rule, no longer obtains. The oldest method was to prescribe definite subjects for admission to college and to demand specific amounts of those subjects of all candidates for admission. This was modified during the last half of the nineteenth century in such a way as to prescribe defi- nite amounts of work in certain subject groups, — English, mathematics, foreign languages, science, and history, — but to permit the election of the particular language, sci- ence, and history. Later still this method was further mod- ified so that certain amounts of prescribed subjects were specified and other subjects allowed to be chosen from lists of "accepted subjects." Finally the method of admission has in some cases been so modified as to allow a "free margin" of "elective" subjects which may be chosen from any of the subjects accepted by an approved high school toward graduation. In a few cases the extreme form of this method has been adopted, allowing a free election of the entire fifteen units required. The practice of allowing a "free margin" is not, however, the rule in most colleges, and in general uniformity is lacking, in some cases subjects required by certain colleges not even being accepted in others of equal rank.1 132. The distribution of prescribed units. While there is wide variation in the manner in which prescribed units are distributed, there is also at present considerable uni- formity in the more essential elements involved and in 1 Kingsley, C. D., op. cit., pp. 17-18. RELATION TO HIGHER EDUCATION 319 theory agreement is general that the high-school course, where preparation for admission to college is considered legitimate, should include at least three units of English, one of natural science, and one of social science. These five units, together with two or two and one half units of mathematics almost uniformly included constitute one half of the total number of units required for admission, and the prescription of these units has comparatively little effect in reducing flexibility except when the college specifies some particular science or epoch of history.1 In 1899 the Committee of Ten on College Entrance Requirements recommended that the following ten units should be included in the high-school course and in college entrance requirements: Four units in foreign language (no language accepted in less than two units), two units in mathematics, two in English, one in his- tory, and one in science.2 The recommendations of that committee did much to reduce the variability which had previously existed, but it failed to produce satisfactory conditions, largely because of the requirements in mathematics and the fact that many colleges required a greater amount of foreign language than that recommended by the committee. Certain features found in present conditions are worthy of note. In a study of 204 colleges of liberal arts Kingsley found that 10 colleges (in 1912) did not prescribe any par- ticular subject for graduates of fully approved high schools. All colleges that prescribed any subject prescribed English and in some cases English was the only subject prescribed. Every college that prescribed any subject other than Eng- 1 Kingsley, C. D., op. cit., p. 11. * National Education Association. Report of Committee on College En- trance Requirements, p. 32. 320 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION lish prescribed mathematics. In the case of foreign lan- guages was found the greatest variation in prescribed units. The present tendency is to reduce the amount of foreign language, both in high-school courses and in college admis- sion requirements and to permit a choice between ancient and modern languages. A student who can offer no Latin and only three units of German can meet the foreign-lan- guage requirements of 110 colleges of liberal arts and become a candidate for the Bachelor of Arts degree in 73 of those colleges. Out of 204 colleges of liberal arts 22 admit stu- dents without any language other than English. Only 94 out of 204 colleges of liberal arts prescribe any natural science for admission. History is prescribed by 163 of those colleges. Flexibility in the curriculum of the high school which must provide secondary education for those going to college and those not is greatly affected by the extent to which the colleges recognize as counting toward admission the various subjects commonly found in the high-school course. For 1912 Kingsley gives the following table of subjects accepted by colleges of liberal arts as counting toward admission to the bachelor of arts course. TABLE CX. NUMBER OF SUCH COLLEGES ACCEPTING VARIOUS SUBJECTS FOR ADMISSION * Subject* No, Subjects No. Subjects No. Latin ... . 203 Zoology . . 175 Business 88 Greek. . . . German . . 202 197 Physiography. . Physiology .... 174 151 Household economics. . . Geology. . , 79 64 Physics. . . 196 Drawing 124 Music 62 Chemistry . 194 Spanish 118 Astronomy 54 French . . . 192 Shopwork 97 Agriculture 80 Botany. . . 181 Economics 92 General science 43 (Others will consider subjects not commonly accepted.) * Kingsley, op. cit., p. 27. RELATION TO HIGHER EDUCATION 321 Current practice (1912) in the distribution of prescribed and elective units may be seen from the following table. TABLE CXI * Colleges of liberal arts Colleges of engi- neering Colleget of agri- culture Total Number of colleges considered 203 85 31 319 Prescribed units, average number 10.7 10 1 8 1 10 2 English 2 9 3 0 2 9 2 9 Mathematics 2 3 3 1 2 2 2 5 Foreign language 4 0 2 0 1 2 3 1 Natural Science 0 5 1 0 1 0 0 7 Social Science 1 0 0 9 0 8 0 9 Drawing 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 Elective units, average number 4 1 4 6 6 6 4 5 Required units, average number 14.8 14.7 14.7 14 7 * Compiled from data given by Kingsley, C. D., op. cit., pp. 28, 73, 89. It is to be noted from this table that the only require- ments likely to cramp the work of the high school in any important way are the requirements in English, mathe- matics, and foreign language, and of these the most notice- able is the requirement in foreign languages for admission to the colleges of liberal arts or the "general" college. In all three of these subject groups the problem centers largely around the necessity of so distributing the pupil's work in the secondary school that in some fields his education shall proceed beyond the elementary phases and at the same time that the pupil shall receive some insight into a variety of fields of knowledge and training. With unlimited election of subject for admission to college it is possible (where the secondary school permits) for the student entering college to have studied the elementary phases of a number of sub- 322 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDAEY EDUCATION jects and never have carried his acquaintance with any one subject or group of subjects beyond the elementary or in- troductory stage. With recognition of the desirability of a certain amount of concentration in one or more fields, to- gether with a certain amount of distribution in other fields, there is a growing tendency for colleges to adapt admission requirements and for secondary schools to adapt courses of study so as to provide for such concentration and distribu- tion. This is obvious in the admission requirements of such colleges as the University of Chicago, Harvard University, etc., and in the recommendations of the Committee of the National Education Association on the Articulation of High School and College (1911). 133. Recommendations of the Committee on Articula- tion. In 1910 a committee was appointed by the Secondary Department of the National Education Association to con- sider the problem of the articulation of the high school and college. The committee's report was accepted in 1911. The substance of that report is indicated by the recommenda- tions made regarding a well-planned high-school course.1 1. The quantitative requirement should be 15 units. The defini- tion of the unit there adopted is that given in Section 132 above. 2. Every high-school course should include at least three units of English, one unit of social science (including history), and one unit of natural science. 3. Every high-school course should include the completion of two majors of 3 units each and one minor of 2 units, and one of the majors should be English. The following subject groups are recom- mended as majors: three units of English; three units of mathe- matics; three units of one foreign language; three units of social science; three units of natural science. 4. The requirement in mathematics and in foreign languages should not exceed 2 units in mathematics, and 2 units of one lan- guage other than English. 1 Proceedings of the National Education Association (1911), pp. 559-67. Cf. Kingsley, op. cit., pp. 97-105. RELATION TO HIGHER EDUCATION 323 5. Of the total 15 units, not less than 11 units should consist of English, foreign language, mathematics, social science (including history), natural science, or other work conducted by recitations and home study. The other 4 units should be left as a margin to be used for additional academic work or for mechanic arts, household science, commercial work, and any other kind of work that the best interests of the student appear to require. 4 (a). In place of either two units of mathematics or two units of foreign language, the substitution, under proper supervision, should be allowed of two units, consisting of a second unit of social science (including history) and a second unit of natural science. According to these recommendations three general group- ings would then be possible for the ten or eleven units in prescribed groups: TABLE CXH* A or B or C English 3 33 Foreign language 2 2 0 Mathematics 2 0 2 Social science 1 2 2 Natural science 1 2 2 Total specified 9 99 To be added to complete second major . 1 or 2 1 1 Total 10 or 11 10 10 * From the Supplementary Report of the Committee on Articidation. p. 566. Cf . Kingsley, op. cit., p. 101. It will be noted that the essential principle of this plan is the grouping of parts of subjects or of allied subjects with more or less freedom of choice within groups, thus provid- ing for consecutive and fairly advanced work in at least two or three fields, and still leaving sufficient freedom to allow flexibility in the work of the secondary school. 324 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION III. METHODS OF SELECTING STUDENTS FOR ADMISSION TO COLLEGE 134. Examination and certificating systems. Closely re- lated to the problems of subject requirements for admission to college are problems involved in the methods by which the selection is made of those who are fitted to take up the work of the college. The interest here enters on those prob- lems as affecting the work of the secondary school rather than as affecting the college. Historically the fitness of high- school graduates for admission to college, until within the past few decades, has always been tested by examinations. Around the system of examinations for admission to college there grew up a body of formality and machinery which seri- ously interfered with the transition of the student from one institution to the other, thus creating an important "break" in the system of education. Recognition of this "break" in our system of education and the rise of public State colleges and universities have led within the past few decades to the introduction and rapid development of "certificating" or "accrediting" systems, whereby successful work accom- plished in the high school is assumed to be an adequate indi- cation of fitness for admission to college. The operation of the two different systems and its effect on the work of the secondary school are deserving of consideration. 135. Examination methods in practice. As long as the early colleges in this country drew their students from secondary schools where there was little opportunity for close observation of the work done, and as long as there ex- isted little uniformity in the character of the work done in those schools, the examination system was the only method possible for selecting candidates who were fit for college work. With the increase in the number of colleges with vary- ing requirements and with varying forms of examination RELATION TO HIGHER EDUCATION 325 considerable confusion arose, and the difficulties of prepara- tion and of selection became great. To meet those difficul- ties a number of methods were adopted looking toward uni- formity and the simplification of the system of examinations. Among these the most important from the view of exami- nations was the establishment of the College Entrance Ex- amination Board in 1900. Originally the aim of this board was to provide uniform examinations for all candidates for admission to the colleges which formed the association. It has resulted in the establishment of an examination system the results of which are accepted for admission to practically every college in the country although in practice the major- ity of those who' take the examinations enter coUeges in the North Atlantic States and come from those States. In the first examinations conducted by the board less than one thousand candidates were examined. In 1915 nearly five thousand candidates were examined. Further examples of centralized examination systems, though differing widely from that mentioned above, are found in the Examinations conducted by the Board of Regents in New York State, and to some extent in the systems of Minnesota and Florida. An important modification of the examination system was made when several colleges adopted the plan in whole or in part of testing candidates by means of "comprehensive" examinations designed to test the power of the candidate rather than specific and detailed accomplishment in certain subjects. The character of such examinations and their bearing on the work of the secondary school may be seen from the substance of a memorandum presented to the Col- lege Entrance Examination Board: To be most useful the new comprehensive papers must be adapted: (1) to such variety of school instruction as exists in the several subjects — that is, they must not prescribe methods, but must recognize the general principle that the schools determine 326 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION how they shall teach a subject and that the College tests results or power; (2) to different stages of training in the subjects in which they are set — that is, they must give boys opportunity to show their power whether they have had the minimum or the maximum amount of training given in school.1 The adoption of such a plan for comprehensive examina- tions (in addition to the ordinary examination) by the College Entrance Examination Board in 1916 permits greater flexibility in the work of the secondary school wherever advantage is taken of the opportunity. 136. Advantages and disadvantages of examinations. Ex- aminations must always be necessary when no other ade- quate means exist whereby the fitness of candidates can be determined. In the majority of cases, however, examina- tions cannot be justified on the ground of necessity only. Among the claims that are made of the advantages of the examination system are the following: (1) that the examina- tion is the best test of the candidate's fitness; (2) that examinations afford an opportunity and impelling stimulus to reorganize as a whole material previously studied; (3) that examinations stimulate the endeavor of the boy or girl in high-school work by offering a definite objective point; (4) that examinations afford training in meeting crises. In the case of college entrance examinations the last claimed advantage may be ignored on the ground that any one of two sets of examination are inadequate to produce the train- ing claimed. The second and third advantages claimed un- doubtedly possess some validity, though it may be noted in connection with the second that the organization of material in review is a matter of method not necessarily in- volving examinations. In connection with the third claim it may be noted that certain evils are also involved. 1 College Entrance Examination Board, Fifteenth Annual Report of the Secretary (1915), pp. 4-5. RELATION TO HIGHER EDUCATION 327 To all these possible advantages claimed for the examina- tion method must be opposed many disadvantages. It may be noted first that single tests commonly do not indicate the true status of an individual with regard to any single mental trait, much less with regard to the complex mental traits involved in any subject such as forms the basis of the college-entrance examinations. The true status of an indi- vidual in any mental trait is to be determined by a number of separate measurements. In the second place the varia- bility of judgments and the personal equation of the markers enter largely into the interpretation of the ability manifested by the examinee, as has been shown clearly by the investiga- tions of Starch and Elliott and others.1 Thus in marking the same examination paper the grading of one marker may differ from that of another to such an extent as to invalidate completely the gradings of a large number of candidates. The present writer found in the case of thirteen geometry papers marked by thirteen readers of the College Entrance Examination Board ranges as large as twenty-seven and thirty-three points on a percentile scale between the highest and the lowest markers of the same paper, and an average deviation as high as 5.57 per cent from the central tendency of the marks assigned. The average deviation for the thir- teen markers grading thirteen papers for the Board was 3.69 points on a percentile scale.2 In the third place, it may be noted that the examinations as usually conducted fail to determine with even a fair degree 1 Starch, D., and Elliott, E. C., "The Reliability of Grading Work in English," School Review, vol. xx, pp. 442-57; same, "History," ibid., vol. xxi, pp. 676-81; same, "Mathematics," ibid., vol. xxi, pp. 254-59. Cf. Starch, D., "Reliability and Distribution of Grades," Science, vol. xxxvui, pp. 630-36; same, Educational Measurements, pp. 3-15. Cf. Kelly, F. J., Teachers' Marks, pp. 51-84. 2 It should be stated that the figures were secured before the markers had "standardized" their marking system and hence are higher than the final variability. 328 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION of accuracy the fitness of candidates to do college work. Here the results of Thorndike's investigation are in point.1 Thorndike compared the standings of students on examina- tion for entrance to Columbia University with their stand- ings while in college. The results of his investigation showed that success in college work cannot be estimated from suc- cess in the entrance examinations with enough accuracy to make the entrance examinations worth taking or to prevent gross and intolerable injustice from being done to many individuals. For instance, 6 out of the 130 received the same average entrance mark — 61. In their college work of junior year, 1 averaged a trifle above D; 1 half-way from D to C; one a little above C; and 2 received A in four subjects out of five, and B in the other. In freshman and sophomore year, the range was nearly as great. . . . It is certain that the traditional entrance examinations, even when as fully safeguarded as in the case of those given by the Col- lege Entrance Examination Board, do not prevent incompetents from getting into college; do not prevent students of excellent promise from being discouraged, improperly conditioned or barred out altogether; do not measure fitness for college well enough to earn the respect of students or teachers; and do intolerable injus- tice to individuals. On the other hand, Jones maintains relatively high corre- lations between the standing of students on entrance exami- nations and in the freshman year of college, basing his con- clusions on such figures as are shown in Table CXIII. The defects of the examination system considered above have to do largely with the question from the standpoint of the college or the entire system of education. Further de- fects are claimed to be involved from the standpoint of the secondary school. Most important among these is the fact that examinations tend to set up a formal and artificial goal 1 Thorndike, E. L., "The Future of the College Entrance Examination Board," Educational Review, vol. xxxi, pp. 470-83; Strayer, G. D., and Thorndike, E. L., Educational Administration, pp. 176-87. RELATION TO HIGHER EDUCATION 329 TABLE CXIII. THE RELATION OF STUDENTS' STANDING ON ENTRANCE EXAMINATION AND IN THE FRESHMAN YEAR OP COLLEGE * On entrance examination* in Freshman year in college in Highest quarter Next to highest quarter Next to lowe.it quarter Lowest quarter 2 5 18 25 Highest quarter (50 men) 30 16 3 1 13 17 13 7 5 12 16 17 Next to highest quarter (50 men) Next to lowest quarter (50 men) Lowest quarter (50 men) * Cf. Jones, A. L., "Entrance Examinations and College Records," Educational Review, vol. XLvra, pp. 109-22. for secondary-school pupils, who look forward to entering college. The narrow minimum demands for college entrance tend to become the principal aim of the college-preparatory work of the secondary school and to influence the other work of the school in a way unfavorable to high standards of real attainment. The securing of " points" or " credits" becomes the aim rather than the attainment of knowledge or training; the methods of study and teaching are ex- tensively affected by the possibility of "cramming," and consistent, steady work day by day receives little en- couragement when the pupil feels that all will depend on examinations. The introduction of " comprehensive" exami- nations will doubtless tend to reduce these evils. 137. The certificating or accrediting system. The period following the Civil War was noticeably a period of rapid development in public systems of education and in State colleges and universities. Where such State systems included public colleges and universities there existed a situation favorable to the development of closer articulation between 330 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION the secondary schools and the colleges, and out of such situ- ations developed the system of admitting students to col- lege through a certificating or accrediting system on the basis of satisfactory completion of the high-school course. One of the first institutions to adopt the certificating system was the University of Michigan in 1871. In 1873 the State Board of Education of Indiana and Indiana University adopted regulations which practically initiated a State-wide system of accrediting high schools, the administration of that system being in the hands of the Board of Education. The movement commended itself to school and college authorities throughout the country, though most extensively in the West and Middle West, and by 1895 forty-two State universities and one hundred and fifty other institutions had adopted the accrediting system in some form.1 At the pres- ent time the accrediting system is recognized by nearly all colleges and universities in the country, the only important exceptions being a few prominent universities (e.g., Har- vard, Yale, Princeton, Columbia, Bryn Mawr) in the East.2 These have adopted certain elements of the certificating system in combination with the admission examinations. 138. The advantages and disadvantages of the accrediting system. The prime question regarding the accrediting sys- tem as a means whereby candidates may be admitted to col- lege is: Does it admit the fit and exclude the unfit? The answer to this question in theory is that a judgment based on all the work done by a boy or girl for four years in the secondary school would appear to be the most reliable. Do results in practice accord with this theory? It would appear that they do. Dearborn compared the school and college standing of 472 students who entered the Univer- 1 Report of the United States Commissioner of Education (1894-95), vol. 11, pp. 1171-88. 2 Since this was written the majority of women's colleges of New England have reverted to the examination system. RELATION TO HIGHER EDUCATION 331 sity of Wisconsin on certificate in 1900 to 1905. He found that pupils tend to maintain in the university the same relative rank which they held in the high school. ... Of the 472 pupils, only five who stood hi the lowest quarter of the group on entrance, suc- ceeded in reaching the rank of the first quarter (during the fresh- man year), and they secured only the lowest grade in that quarter; similarly, but five of those who entered in the first quarter of this large group, dropped to the lowest quarter during the freshman year; and they stood in the highest grade of this quarter. These results seem remarkable when we contrast them with the notions, often current, of the extent of reversal which the freshman year of the university makes in the careers of high school students.1 Dearborn further found a correlation of more than eighty per cent for the standing of students in the high school and in the freshman year of the college.2 Numerous other studies have indicated much the same facts as those sug- gested by Dearborn's study. Thus Smith secured the data presented in the Table CXIV, showing the retention in the college of students belonging to different scholarship groups in the high school. Essentially the same results were found by Pettit.3 Clement's investigation discloses the fact that from 75 to 80 per cent of pupils were found in the same tertile of the total groups in high school and college.4 Even more conclusive were the results of Lincoln's study of the relative standing of students in the freshman and sophomore years at Harvard College, in the high school, and on entrance examinations. His findings indicate that where the same individuals are concerned the standing of those 1 Dearborn, W. F., The Relative Standing of Pupils in the High School and in the University, pp. 17, 19. 2 Ibid., p. 21. * Pettit, W. W., A Comparative Study of New York High School and Columbia College Grades. * Clement, J. A., Standardization of the Schools of Kansas, p. 129. 332 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION TABUS CXIV. RETENTION IN SCHOLABSHIP GROUPS IN THE COLLEGE OF PUPILS WHO WERE IN DIFFERENT SCHOLARSHIP GROUPS IN HIGH SCHOOL * In high-school work In the college work Highest quintile (per cent) Second quintile (per cent) Third quintile (per cent) Fourth quintile (per cent) Lowest quintile (per cent) Highest quintile 54 25 17 0 4 17 29 25 25 4 17 17 20 25 21 4 13 21 33 29 8 16 17 17 42 Second quintile Third quintile Fourth quintile Lowest quintile Table should be read_thus: of pupils who were in the highest quintile in the high school fifty-four per cent were in the highest quintile in college. Seventeen per cent dropped to the second quintile, etc. * Smith, F. O., A Rational Basis for Determining Fitness for College Entrance. TABLE CXV. CORRELATIONS OF STANDINGS OF STUDENTS m COLLEGE, IN THE HIGH SCHOOL, AND ON ENTRANCE EXAMI- NATIONS * Coefficient of correla- tion Probable error Freshman-year college work and high-school work Freshman-year college work and examinations .69 .47 .02 .03 Sophomore-year college work and high-school work . . . .58 .41 .02 .04 Examinations and high-school work .46 .03 * Lincoln, E. A., "The Relative Standing of Pupils in High School, in Early College, an on College Entrance Examinations," School and Society, vol. v, pp. 417-20. (Pearson c< efficient employed.) RELATION TO HIGHER EDUCATION 333 students in their high -school work as measured by the aver- age grades received therein would have been one and a half times as reliable an index of their ability to do the work of the freshman year in college as were their standings on the entrance examinations. His figures are given in Table CXV. The special value of these figures is found in the fact that they permit a direct comparison between the reliability of high-school grades and entrance-examination grades as measures of the ability of the same students to do college work of the freshman and sophomore years. In the above discussion emphasis has been placed on the benefits which the college is claimed to derive from the adop- tion of a certificating system. No less benefits are claimed for the secondary school. These have been emphasized by Brown as follows: It would be hard to overestimate the good already accomplished by the accrediting system, in spite of all defects. It has given to communities a means, which had been lacking, of discovering the deficiencies, and likewise, the excellences of their schools. It has greatly aided the better principals and teachers in their efforts to maintain high standards of scholarship. It has quickened the intellectual life of schools and of whole communities, by the imme- diate touch of university ideals. In some States, as in Missouri, it has virtually called into being a new and better and more general provision for secondary education, within a very few years. In some States, under its influence, the improvement of the teaching in such schools has gone forward at an unprecedented rate.1 By no means the least advantage resulting from the adop- tion of the accrediting system is to be found in the fact that it has brought into closer and better coordination the secondary school and the college by removing one of the greatest barriers between the two institutions. The accrediting system has its merits. It also has its seri- 1 Brown, E. E., The Making of Our Middle Schools, pp. 376-77. Quoted with the permission of the publishers, Longmans, Green & Co. 834. PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION ous disadvantages. The first of these is found in the fact that it can never completely meet the needs of the situation. The very character of the system and the necessity of maintain- ing standards make it necessary that some schools must be denied the certificating privilege. Yet some pupils who are worthy of admission to college will always be found in such schools. The accrediting system must always select pupils according to schools: the examination emphasizes selection by individuals. Hence some form of examination for some students must always supplement the accrediting system. The second defect in the accrediting system is found in the difficulty of its administration, especially with reference to the supervision or inspection of the work of the secondary schools — a provision which is necessary if standards are to be maintained. In such supervision or inspection of the secondary schools by the colleges it is to be noted that there is always danger that undue control over the work of the high schools may be exercised and that many evils now perpetuated by the dominance of the college over the secondary school may be continued. 139. Methods of administering the accrediting system. In general two different methods of administering the cer- tificating or accrediting system are found, the essential difference between the two being found in the methods em- ployed for determining the selection of secondary schools to which the accrediting privilege should be granted. (1) The New England College Entrance Certificate Board : This board was established in 1902 for the purpose of creat- ing a certificate "clearing house" for the colleges of New England. In general the standing of the secondary school and the character of the work done in any given school is determined by that board on the basis of the accomplish- ment in college of graduates who are certificated from that school. According to the success or failure of such certifi- RELATION TO HIGHER EDUCATION 335 cated graduates the certificating privilege is granted or withdrawn from any given school. The advantage of the method is found in the simplicity with which it can be administered. The defects are found in the possible unfair- ness in determining the character of any school on the basis of a few scattered representatives of the school and in the fact that it encourages weak schools to retain their standing with the certificating board by refusing certificates to any but the best pupils. Dissatisfaction with the method is not unknown among the secondary schools of New England and at least one New England College. It is to be noted also that the method provides for little cooperation between the college and the secondary school which may improve the work of the latter. (2} The inspection method. In the majority of States in the country the standing of the secondary school with reference to the granting or the withholding of the accrediting priv- ilege is determined on the basis of the character of the work done in such schools as ascertained from the inspection and supervision of them by college officers, State officials, or commission representatives. Such is the method adopted by numerous State colleges and universities, by State boards of education, and such general commissions as the Commis- sion on Accredited Schools of the North Central States (established in 1901 by the North Central Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools), etc. The merits of the inspection system are found in the close relations which they have developed in such States between colleges and secondary schools, the intimate acquaintance with problems of public secondary education gained by college representa- tives, the upbuilding influence of the college on the school, and the success of the method in determining the fitness of graduates for college work. The defects of the method are those involved in the difficulties of providing effective 336 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION inspection and supervision in some territories and the amount of administrative ' machinery required effectively to carry out the plan. These difficulties are great. Nevertheless, they have been met with satisfactory results in general, par- ticularly in the Middle West, and with improved organiza- tion and administration the difficulties inherent in the plan should not prove unsurmountable. In this connection two suggested schemes are worthy of mention. Both arise out of the operation of existing systems in cases where the college and the secondary school are geo- graphically distant. The first is that suggested by Thorn- dike, who recommended in 1906 that the College Entrance Examination Board assume the added function of a clearing- house for certificates, the accrediting being based on the actual success in college of the students endorsed by each secondary school.1 The advantages of such a plan are obvious, but no action has ever been taken. The second suggestion is that of Henderson, who recommended that the National Association of State Universities appoint a Com- mission to control the matter of accrediting.2 Previously, Broome had suggested that desirable conditions for the wide use of the accrediting system could come only with the exist- ence of a national board of inspectors for secondary schools.3 Meanwhile, the difficulty of a college determining the sta- tus of any secondary school situated at a distance has been somewhat relieved by the publication of lists of accredited schools prepared from lists of various independent accred- iting bodies.4 1 Strayer, G. D., and Thorndike, E. L., Educational Administration, pp. 176-87. 8 Henderson, J. L., Admission to College by Certificate, pp. 165-66. 3 Broome, E. C., op. cit., p. 125. * Published at intervals by the Bureau of Education. KELATION TO HIGHER EDUCATION 337 PROBLEMS FOR FURTHER CONSIDERATION 1. To what extend have the functions of the college and university changed within the past half-century or so? How have those changes affected the work of the secondary school and its relation to higher institutions? 2. Compare the articulation of the secondary school and college 6r univer- sity in Germany, France, England, and America. 3. To what extent do the curricula of the public secondary school and the college overlap? 4. Compare the articulation of the public secondary school and the State college or university with the articulation of the public secondary school and the private college or university. 5. Compare the proportion of high-school graduates going to college in States where the leading college is public and in States where the lead- ing college or colleges are private. Compare also the high school popu- lations in those States. (Cf . Report of the United States Commissioner of Education (1914), vol. n, pp. 416, 415, 411.) 6. Study the historical development of college admission requirements in English, mathematics, or foreign languages. 7. Compare the college entrance requirements of: (a) Harvard, Princeton, Yale, Columbia; (6) the University of Chicago, the University of Michigan, the University of California, Amherst College. (Cf. Kings- ley, C. D., reference in following bibliography.) 8. Study the requirements for entrance to public normal schools. What relation do they have to the public secondary school? 9. Compare more in detail the advantages and defects of the examination system and the accrediting system of admission to college, with special reference to their effect on the public secondary school. 10. Compare the certificating systems of the Commission on Accredited Schools of the North Central States and of the New England College Entrance Certificating Board, with special reference to their effect on the public secondary school. 11. What are the merits and demerits of the junior college? 12. For any given secondary school or group of secondary schools compare the relative standing in school and college of its graduates. SELECTED REFERENCES NOTE: The literature dealing with the relation between secondary edu~ cation and higher education is so voluminous that any extended bibliog- raphy is here impossible. Hence there are included below such references only as (a) represent somewhat comprehensive treatments of the field; (b) the carefully considered reports of various organizations, committees, departments of education, etc. ; (c) special articles dealing with most recent phases of the topic; (d) articles and reports dealing with actual experiments and investigations. 338 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION I. General treatment: Broome, E. C., A Historical and Critical Discussion of College En- trance Requirements. Hollister, H. A., High School Administration, chap. xm. Kingsley, C. D., The Relation of the High Schools to Higher Educt tional Institutions. Mooney, W. B., "The Relation of Secondary Schools to Higher Schools in the United States," Pedagogical Seminary, vol. xxui, pp. 387-^-16. II. Reports of committees, organizations, etc.: National Education Association, Report of Committee on College Entrance Requirements, Proceedings (1899), pp. 632-817. Also published separately by the Association. National Education Association, Report of the Committee of Ten on Secondary School Studies, published separately by the Bureau of Education and also by the American Book Company. National Education Association, Report of the Committee on the Articulation of High School and College, Proceedings of the Associ- ation (1911), pp. 559-37. Also published, pp. 97-105 of Bulletin (1913) no. 7 of the Bureau of Education. National Education Association, Report of Committee on Economy of Time in Education, Proceedings (1914), pp. 206-22. Also published separately in Bulletin (1913) no. 38, of the Bureau of Education. Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, Reports, 1906-, especially vol. iv. (1909) and vol. v (1910). College Entrance Examination Board, Reports of the Secretary. New England College Entrance Certificate Board, Report of the Sec- retary. Commission on Accredited Schools of the North Central States, Reports. Ill Special articles: Angell, J. R., "The Junior College Movement in High Schools," School Review, vol. xxin, pp. 289-302. California, State Board of Education, Report of the Commissioner of Secondary Schools (1914), pp. 20-23 ("Junior Colleges in Cali- fornia"). Gray, A. A., "The Junior College in California," School Review, vol. xxin, pp. 465-73. Henderson, J. L., Admission to College by Certificate. Holland, E. O., Pennsylvania State Normal Schools and Public School System. Lange, A. F., "A Junior College Department of Civic Education," School and Society, vol. n, pp. 442-48. McLane, C. L., "The Junior College, or Upward Extension of the High School," School Review, vol. xxi, pp. 161-70. RELATION TO HIGHER EDUCATION 339 IV. Special studies and investigations: Bureau of Education Bulletins, Accredited Secondary Schools in the United States (1913), no. 29; (1915), no. 7; (1916), no. 20. Burritt, B. B., The Professional Distribution of College and University Graduates, Bureau of Education, Bulletin (1912) no. 19. Clement, J. A., Standardization of the Schools of Kansas, Doctor Dissertation, University of Chicago. (High-school and college standings.) Dearborn, W. F., The Relative Standing of Pupils in the High School and in the University, Bulletin of the University of Wisconsin no. 312. Hollingworth, H. L., Vocational Psychology, chap. vm. Inglis, A. J., "High School Graduates and Preparation for Higher Institutions," School and Society, vol. i, pp. 932-34. Inglis, A. J., "The Distribution of Pupils in the Public High Schools," Educational Review, vol. XLVI, pp. 344-50. Jones, A. L., "Entrance Examinations and College Records: A Study in Correlation," Educational Review, vol. XLVUI, pp. 109-22. Kellicott, W. E., " College Entrance Requirements and College Standards," School and Society, vol. n, pp. 29-36. Kelly, F. J., Teachers' Marks: Their Variability and Standardization, especially pp. 11-84. Kingsley, C. D., College Entrance Requirements, Bureau of Educa- tion Bulletin (1913) no. 7. Lincoln, E. A., "The Relative Standing of Pupils hi High School, in Early College, and on College Entrance Examination," School and Society, vol. v, pp. 417-420. North Central Association (of Colleges and Secondary Schools), A Study of the Colleges and High Schools in, Bureau of Education, Bulletin (1915) no. 6. Pittinger, B. F., " The Efficiency of College Students as Condi- tioned by Age at Entrance and Size of High School," Sixteenth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, part ii. Smith, F. O., A Rational Basis for Determining Fitness for College Entrance, University of Iowa, Studies in Education, vol. i, no. 3. Starch, D., Educational Measurement, chap. u. Cf. also Science, vol. xxxviii, pp. 630-36. Thorndike, E. L., "The Future of the College Entrance Examina- tion Board," Educational Review, vol. xxxi, pp. 470-83. Also in Strayer, G. D., and Thorndike, E. L., Educational Administration, pp. 176-87. Extended bibliography: Walkley, R. L., Bibliography of the Relation of Secondary Education to Higher Education, Bureau of Education, Bulletin (1914) no. 32. CHAPTER IX SOCIAL PRINCIPLES DETERMINING SECONDARY EDUCATION 140. Some underlying assumptions. Social theory must always furnish the basis whereon are established conceptions of the functions which education should perform. The social theory underlying the considerations adduced in this chap- ter involves certain assumptions the substantiation of which cannot be attempted here. Among those assumptions the more fundamental are the following. (1) Society is to be conceived as in evolutionary process. In that process are involved the two factors of integration and differentiation, the former working toward social co- hesion and solidarity, the latter working toward variation and modification. (2) There is an essential congruity of interest between the individual and society. The possibility of the development of the individual is found in his participation in social activ- ities and in the social consciousness. The possibility of the development of society is found in the development of social personalities in individuals. (3) The school is to be considered as a social institution or agency maintained by society for the purpose of assisting in the maintenance of its own stability and in the direction of its own progress. 141. Secondary education as a social institution. If the school is to be looked on as an institution established, main- tained, and controlled by society for the purpose of maintain- ing its own stability and determining the direction of its own progress, secondary education, as a part (and as a part only) SOCIAL PRINCIPLES 341 of a general system of education, must be conceived as de- termined fundamentally by its functions as a social agency. Looked at from this point of view secondary education involves a number of important social principles some of which may be formulated here and considered further in following sections. (1) The character and purposes of secondary education at any time and in any society must conform to the dom- inant ideals and to the form of social organization of that society. (2) The dynamic character of the social process requires the constant readjustment of secondary education to the changing demands of society. (3) The nature of social evolution involves the two sup- plementary factors of integration and differentiation, both of which must be recognized properly in secondary educa- tion. (4) Whenever any other social institution fails to provide forms of education socially desirable the school should assume responsibility for those forms of education as far as may be possible. Whenever such forms of education are appropriate to the age and grade of secondary education, the secondary school should assume responsibility for them. Conversely, whenever other social agencies provide ade- quately for forms of education socially desirable the school should not attempt to assume responsibility for them. 142. Social ideals and social organization. In discussing the historical development of secondary education the point was emphasized that the efficiency of the secondary school is to be measured in terms of the degree in which it conforms and contributes to the dominant social ideals and form of social organization at any particular time. In discussing systems of secondary education in different countries the point was emphasized that the efficiency of the secondary 342 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION school is to be measured according to the dominant social ideals and the form of social organization peculiar to each country. In the present section the principles of education involved may be considered with special reference to the social ideals and social organization of the American Democ- racy. To state that the American secondary school should con- form to the democratic ideals and the democratic organiza- tion of Amercan society is to state a platitude. The impli- cations of such a statement, however, are not always clearly perceived and may bear further consideration. Three im- portant implications invite attention. (1) Efficient membership in American society demands at least three qualifications: (a) an ability effectively to execute the formal and informal duties of citizenship and carry the burden of political responsibility; (6) an ability to produce and labor sufficiently to carry one's own economic load; (c) an ability to utilize one's leisure time and act in an in- dividual capacity without interfering with the interests of others or of society at large. In certain societies where other social ideals are dominant it is possible for many of the privileges and responsibilities of citizenship to be preroga- tives of special groups. In some forms of society it is possi- ble for economic production to rest principally on certain groups. In certain forms of society opportunities for the enjoyment of leisure are open to different groups in degrees determined by social ideals which greatly limit certain indi- viduals or groups. In the American democracy the three forms of activity must be considered as important for every citizen in so far as his individual capacity and circumstances permit. It follows, therefore, not only that educational opportunity, including secondary education, should be uni- versal in America, but also that these three phases of activity must be conceived as necessary parts of the education due SOCIAL PRINCIPLES 343 every individual and that in the secondary school each of the three phases should receive attention in due proportion. Failure to recognize this principle in the past has led to over-emphasis on certain phases of secondary education and the comparative neglect of others. This is particularly no- ticeable in the comparative neglect until* recently of the preparation of the worker in the American secondary school. Over-emphasis in the other direction for some pupils is a not impossible tendency in some quarters at the present time. (2) It must be recognized that in American society each individual must be not merely a law-abiding citizen but also to some extent a law-making citizen. It must further be recognized that the minimum level of general intelligence necessary in any society must depend on the amount of privilege conferred on the individual and the amount of responsibility placed on him. In a society where for the majority of individuals the great necessity is conformance to imposed demands, a much lower level of general intelli- gence is required than in a society where the individual must not only conform to social demands but also determine in part what those demands shall be. Further, it must be recognized that with the constantly growing complexity of modern social and economic life the amount of intelligence and training necessary to meet its privileges and responsi- bilities is much greater than at any former time. An educa- tion which was adequate for the needs of a simpler social organization cannot be adequate for the needs of a more complex society. Consequently it has become a serious problem in this country whether steps should not be taken to provide that a larger proportion of prospective members of American society should receive the benefits of education beyond the elementary school. The increased privileges and responsibilities granted to and demanded of the indi- 344 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION vidual in American society cannot be provided for by a sys- tem which gives two thirds of the citizens not more than an elementary education. The complicated social problems of modern civic and industrial life and of individual conduct cannot be understood and intelligently attacked by a peo- ple, two thirds of whom have received elementary instruc- tion only and of which on the average individuals have re- ceived much less than one thousand days of schooling each. Unless the average amount of education received can be markedly increased the further development of American democracy must be seriously conditioned if not actually imperiled. The problem is one affecting most secondary education in the public schools. (3) The participation of all citizens in the direction and control of all social institutions of a public nature includes a participation hi the direction and control of the school as well as of other institutions. The agency on which democ- racy must most depend is one which democracy must itself determine and control. Even more than in most societies the American secondary school must conform to social ideals and the form of social organization. 143. Social evolution and educational adjustment. It is an obvious fact that as time passes society changes and the demands of the social organization are more or less modified. If it be recognized that the process of the development of social organization is evolutionary and that secondary edu- cation must conform to the dominant social ideals and form of social organization, we must conceive that secondary edu- cation must constantly be readapted to meet the changing needs of the society which it serves. Commonly such changes in social ideals and in the form of social organiza- tion as demand changes in secondary education develop gradually and consequently involve no great reorganiza- tion of secondary education at any one time if the latter is SOCIAL PRINCIPLES 345 gradually modified to meet the gradual changes in society. Institutions, however, and secondary education no less than any other institution, once firmly established, tend con- stantly to become more and more conservative and resist- ent of change — a characteristic which is a safeguard and at the same time a defect. Hence it is that important social changes, readily perceived and evaluated in historical retro- spect, have seldom been clearly perceived by contemporary authorities and have seldom been met by appropriate changes in secondary education. As a result the cumulated effect of necessary changes in secondary education long de- ferred has commonly led to extensive reorganization at irreg- ular intervals. This was the case in the development of the academy in America when the Latin grammar school was not adapted to meet contemporary demands of society, in the .development of the public high school, and is to be observed in the present demand for the reorganization of secondary education calling for radical changes to meet the accumulated evils of existing schools. No less important than the factor of absolute change in social ideals and social organization is the factor of the rate of change therein involved. The rate of development in most lines of social activity has been much more rapid within the past half-century or so than at any correspond- ing period of the past. Likewise development had been much more rapid in this country than in most others. At the present time in this country the rate of change in all phases of our social organization is rapid, and apparently the rate of change is likely to be rapid for some time to come. The recent tendencies in social development indicate clearly that present conditions will in all probability change in important ways within the life of the generation which is at present being prepared for membership in our society. There is a sense in which it is true that the educational proc- 346 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION ess must be at least a generation behind the stage of society for which it is designed to prepare. To reduce that discrep- ancy as much as possible must be involved in any scheme for adapting secondary education to social needs. It requires but a slight examination to note that the activities of the present day call for some knowledges and skills that could not have been foreseen by those responsible for secondary education ten, fifteen, or twenty years ago. In the field of civic duties are such factors as the initiative and ref- erendum, the recall of public officials, commission govern- ment, direct primaries, governmental-industrial relation- ships, female suffrage, and a multitude of other civic duties and civic problems specific preparation for which could not have been afforded in the secondary school for those who are now called upon to meet them. In the field of industry a multitude of new processes and new activi- ties have developed within the past decade or so which the secondary school could not have provided for even if it had turned its attention to vocational education exten- sively. In the field of individual activity new opportuni- ties for the individual's enjoyment have opened up within recent years for which the secondary education of fifteen years ago could not have established standards of conduct except in the most general way. We may be just as sure that equally important and extensive changes will face the pupils in our secondary schools at the present time which we cannot now foresee and for which, therefore, we can provide no specific preparation. The obvious implication of this factor of the rapidity of change in certain phases of social activities is the recognition that mere adjustment to existing conditions in society of the pupils in the secondary school is inadequate — that to this there must be added the development of a capacity to read- just to the changed conditions which we may be sure will face SOCIAL PRINCIPLES 347 the pupils after leaving the school, conditions which we can- not clearly foresee but which we know will hi some respects differ from existing conditions. Of all elements in secondary education this is the one most likely to be neglected or mini- mized. The tendency in that direction is easy to explain. Mere adjustment to existing conditions is relatively easy, the path toward it is direct, and the returns immediate and readily perceived. The development of a capacity to read- just constantly to the changing conditions of life is relatively difficult, the path toward it is indirect, and the returns rela- tively remote and not readily observed. However, the diffi- culty of attaining and the difficulty of developing a capacity to readjust cannot justify the neglect of that phase of the social function of the secondary school. 144. Social integration and differentiation. In any society there are always two sets of forces at work which determine the form of social organization, one set of forces tending to bind together the various parts of society and to unify it, the other set tending to separate the various parts of society and to disrupt it. Without the first set of forces in operation there could be no real society: without the second set of forces in operation society would be static, non-progressive, and lacking the possibility of modification. Whatever be one's views of the form of social evolution the facts must be recog- nized that social forces are dynamic and that there are always two factors at work, one determining the essential unity and continuity of society, the other determining differentiation and change. The operation of the first factor may be termed "integration," that of the second factor "differentiation," terms borrowed from the field of biological evolution without necessarily implying any complete analogy between social and biological evolution. In the units which go to make up society there are always elements of homogeneity and elements of heterogeneity. 348 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION On the maintenance of the proper equilibrium between those elements depend the existence, continuity, and progress of society and the problem in any society is twofold: (1) to develop out of the heterogeneous raw material that degree of homogeneity (like-mindedness) which is necessary for the permanence of the society; and (2) to provide that the maxi- mum efficiency may result from individual differences in capacities, interests, and abilities, as well as from the adap- tation of individuals to the widely differentiated needs of society. Between these two needs of society there must always be a certain amount of antagonism and conflict but it is an error to conceive that we must choose between them because of a certain opposition of function. Rather we must conceive that they are both necessary and that their rela- tion is supplemental far more than antagonistic. In any society there is need of a certain amount of unity of thought, of feeling, of ideals, of standards, of conduct. Such unity is more necessary in a democracy such as ours than in any other society. But it is also true that individual differences and the differentiated needs of modern society demand recognition. Hence the factors of integration and of differ- entiation are both important and neither can be neglected without incurring the gravest social dangers. Failure to pro- vide for the factor of differentiation has for centuries been noteworthy in the social organization and in education. Failure to provide properly for the factor of integration is a very real possibility in social, economic, and educational theory and practice at present. The implication of this principle for education, and especially for secondary education, is clear. As an efficient social institution secondary education must recognize the necessity of provision for training which shall serve to make for integration, training which shall allow for the individual differences among the pupils and the differentiated needs of SOCIAL PRINCIPLES 349 society, training in which the supplementary relation of the two factors is observed. 145. Changes in other social institutions. All the major activities of society and the greater part of the minor activ- ities of society are organized into institutions which may be considered (a) as embodying the recognized purposes of society in the various fields of human activity, (6) as instru- ments of social control, and (c) as media for the communi- cation and transmission of group experience. Among such institutions, of major importance are those centering around the home, the community life, the State, the Church, the vocation, and the school. Since they represent phases of the social purpose and of the social process, and since the social process is evolutionary, we must conceive of these institutions as susceptible of change with time and as them- selves evolutionary. Hence we must expect to find insti- tutions undergoing modification as time progresses, at times losing certain functions, at times adding new functions, at times changing the specific character and direction of their activities. Such changes are manifest in the history of every institution and the history of education indicates that the school as a formal agency of education originated and devel- oped by assuming functions and activities which had pre- viously belonged to other institutions. Recognizing the fact that institutions change it is com- monly held that when existing institutions afford socially adequate training in desirable social activities, the school as the formal agency of education should not assume the responsibility for such training, the reason for this being found in the fact that the direct education coming through actual participation in the activities of society is far more valuable than the indirect education provided by the school as a preparation rather than a form of actual participation. Conversely, it is commonly held that when any other social 350 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION institution fails to provide or ceases to provide desirable forms of training adequately for the social demands, such training must be taken over by the institution specially de- signed for formal education — the school. The implication of this principle for education is twofold — that the school must be expected to assume certain new functions as other institutions cease to meet them, and that, in some cases at least, the school must be brought into closer relation with other institutions for the proper coordination of functions of all educational institutions, formal and in- formal, and for the proper division of social responsibility. This must apply to secondary education as well as to other divisions of education, and it applies with special force at the present time. Within recent years important changes have taken place in the home, in the community life, in the State, in the Church, in the vocation, and in other social institu- tions, which have imposed on secondary education in the school many functions formerly exercised by one or more of those institutions. Those changes and their effects on secondary education are so important that they deserve more extended consideration in the following sections. 146. Changes in the home and family life. To some ex- tent all other social institutions may be conceived as having developed out of the home and family as the fundamental social unit. Thus the State probably had its inception in the development of the family with its increasing number of members, through the clan and groups united by bonds of blood relationship and marriage. Thus religion and the church developed through the various forms of animistic, totemistic, and other forms of belief, in some cases prima- rily through the worship of common ancestors, the family or clan head being also the spiritual head of the social group. Thus the vocation was determined by the activities and needs of the family or clan. In general it is at least a tenable SOCIAL PRINCIPLES 351 theory that the source of all institutional activities and func- tions is to be found in the activities and functions of the fundamental social group — the family. The history of the school as a social institution shows clearly that its inception and its development can be traced to the assumption of activities and functions taken either from the home directly or from the home indirectly through other social institutions which have previously taken over activities and functions formerly belonging to the home. Inevitable changes occur from time to time in the home. In such cases three lines of change may be possible: com- pensating changes may be made in the home itself; the change in the home may be compensated by a change in some other institution; the change in the home may be com- pensated in the institution which society has created for that special purpose, i.e., in the school. Sooner or later the ma- jority of such changes affect the school. To trace even all the important changes in the school which were due to changes in the activities and functions of the home would be impossible here. Only some of the more important and somewhat recent of such changes can be here considered — such changes as apparently affect the present character of secondary education. These may be conven- iently grouped under two heads: those affecting problems of moral-social education; and those affecting vocational edu- cation. In addition, however, we may consider certain changes in the relation between the home and the school. (1) Changes affecting moral-social education: Within the past three or four generations the development of the home as an informal institution of education has been marked by important changes in the stimuli and opportunities for moral-social education, changes which have on the whole tended to lessen the influence of the home as an educational agency. The majority of those changes center around the 352 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION lessening of the home or family solidarity. This is manifest in the lessening interdependence of members of the family; in the lessened amount of responsibility of the children of the family, accompanied in many cases by a greatly in- creased amount of privilege; in the withdrawal of the father, and sometimes the mother, from home occupations to occu- pations in the factory; in the effects of increased urbaniza- tion where the activities of the family are less unified; in the decreased religious atmosphere in the home; in the reconstruction. of family relations in the case of foreign-born parents and native-born children; in the increase of divorce; and in a multitude of other ways. Scarcely two generations ago the social stimuli and the opportunities — nay, more, the necessities — of moral-social education in the home were far greater along important lines than is the case to-day, and the changes are due, not altogether to a decreased sense of responsibility on the part of parents, but to forces over which they have had little or no control. They have been necessary results of powerful social and economic forces at work throughout society. Thus less than half a century ago the " typical " family in America lived in a small town or on the farm, the occupations of the fathers were largely on the farm or in local industries, the occupations of women were almost exclusively in the home, and a multitude of house- hold tasks and home or farm " chores " provided excellent opportunity for the participation of children hi the activi- ties of the family. Since that time the tendency has been strongly in the direction of home conditions in the city, the factory system has removed most of occupational stimuli from the home, women have entered industries and occu- pations never thought of a half -century ago, and modern labor-saving devices have removed the majority of home activities for boys and greatly lessened those for girls. The result has been that the sense of social responsibility devel- SOCIAL PRINCIPLES 353 oped by necessary participation in the activities of the fam- ily in former times has not been developed in the children of the family within recent years, individual privileges have been extended with the increase of leisure and the increase o) opportunities for utilizing that leisure, parents and children spend less and less of their time in close association with a resulting loss of intimate relation, and the primary agency for the development of ideals and habits of social duties and responsibilities has lost opportunities for social training, that it can never fully recover. To this we may add the fact that parents themselves not well educated in some respects find greater and greater difficulty in preparing their children for the needs of modern life, a fact which is particularly perti- nent in the cases of large numbers of foreign-born parents. Obviously the burden thrown on the school by the de- creased influence of the home in these respects affects all divisions of education, including secondary education. It is in part the basis of the present demand for increased attention to the moral and social education of boys and girls, a demand which cannot be neglected without distinct loss to our efficiency as a nation. (3) Changes affecting vocational education : With respect to stimuli and opportunities for vocational education no less important changes have taken place in the development of the home and family life within the past three or four gener- ations, those changes constantly tending to decrease the amount of vocational stimuli and opportunity offered in that institution. To illustrate the changes which have taken place in this connection and in connection, with the preced- ing paragraphs we 'cannot, perhaps, do better than quote from Dewey's description made a decade ago: Back of the factory system lies the household and neighborhood system. Those of us who are here to-day need to go back only one, two, or at most three generations, to find a time when the house- hold was practically the center in which were carried on all the typical forms of industrial occupation. The clothing worn was for the most part not only made in the house, but the members of the household were usually familiar with the shearing of the sheep, the carding and spinning of the wool, and the plying of the loom. In- stead of pressing a button and flooding the house with electric light, the whole process of getting illumination was followed hi its toilsome length, from the killing of the animal and the trying of Fat, to the making of wicks and dipping of candles. The supply of flour, of lumber, of foods, of building materials, of household fur- niture, even of metal ware, of nails, hinges, hammers, etc., was in the immediate neighborhood, in shops which were constantly open to inspection and often centers of neighborhood congregation. The entire industrial process stood revealed, from the production on the farm of raw materials, till the finished article was actually put to use. Not only this but practically every member of the house- hold had his own share in the work. The children, as they gained in strength and capacity, were gradually initiated into the myste- ries of the several processes. It was a matter of immediate concern, even to the point of actual participation. We cannot overlook the factors of discipline and of character- building involved in this: training in habits of order and industry, and in the idea of responsibility, of obligation to do something, to produce something, in the world. There was always something which really needed to be done, and a real necessity that each member of the household should do his own part faithfully and in cooperation with others. Personalities which became effective in action were bred and tested in the medium of action. Again, we cannot overlook the importance for educational purposes of the close and intimate acquaintance got with nature at first hand, with real things and materials, with the actual processes of their manip- ulation, and the knowledge of their social necessities and uses. In all this there was continual training of observation, of ingenuity, constructive imagination, of logical thought, and of the sense of reality acquired through first-hand contact with actualities. The educative force of the domestic spinning and weaving, of the saw- mill, the grist-mill, the cooper shop, and the blacksmith forge, were continuously operative.1 1 Dewey, J., The School and Society, pp. 22-24. Quoted with the per- mission of the publishers, University of Chicago Press. SOCIAL PRINCIPLES 355 Many factors have combined to remove such vocational stimuli and opportunities from the home: (a) the develop- ment of organized industry and the factory system; (6) the application in the home of labor-saving devices; (c) the development of more complicated and scientific methods and processes in industry (e.g., scientific methods in farm- ing), for which the ordinary activities of the home and com- munity can provide but inadequate training; (d) the less- ened self -sufficiency of the home for its own needs; (e) the tendency toward urbanization introducing in some ways a more simplified, in other ways a more complicated We; (/) the decrease of " trade heredity " from father to son, or even from mother to daughter. The lessened influence of the home in vocational training calls for increased attention to that form of education either in the school or in some other social institution. It will be shown in a later section that industry and the vocation itself does not adequately provide vocational training. The only other available institution for that purpose is the school. It is obvious that the great burden of this vocational train- ing must be provided in the secondary division of the system of education. (3} Changes in the relation between the home and the school: Not only is it true that changes in the home itself have imposed responsibilities on the secondary school but it is also true that the relation between the two institutions has changed to such an extent that the school must assume cer- tain responsibilities before appropriate to the home. This arises from the fact that the school has preempted a much greater amount of the time of the child, thus necessarily limiting the amount of education which the home can afford. This is true in two respects. While the length of the school day has not noticeably, if at all, been increased (it has some- times worked in quite the opposite direction), the control of the pupils' time through the supervision of extra-curricula activities and home study has markedly increased. Like- wise the number of individuals involved has very decidedly increased within the past two decades with great resultant increase in the aggregate of the control of the time of the youth in the secondary school. Thus not only does the home commonly fail to afford opportunity for education to the extent it did a generation or two ago, but, even were the desirable educational stimuli and opportunities to be found in the home, their effectiveness would be reduced because of the lessened contact with the child. The school which has itself reduced the opportunity for education in the home must meet its resulting responsibilities. To these considerations may be added the fact that the trend of the development of community life has been such as to destroy to some extent the intimate contact which formerly existed between the home and the school. Hence the development of numerous movements such as parent- teacher associations and the high-school-as-the-civic-center movement to promote a closer cooperation between the two institutions. 147. Changes in community life. Closely allied to changes in the home and family life affecting education are changes in the community life which have within the past few generations affected the character of secondary educa- tion in important ways. Without attempting to draw any sharp dividing line between family life and community life on the one hand and between community life and the more extended functions of the State and society as a whole on the other hand, we may gain a knowledge of some forces affecting education by noting certain changes in community life. Among the most important changes which have oc- curred within recent times we may consider the following: the change from the small community in the country to the SOCIAL PRINCIPLES 357 city community; the increasing heterogeneity of population in communities; the mobility of labor and population. (1) Changes tending toward urbanization: One of the most noticeable and one of the most important social changes which have taken place in this country within the past half- century is the increased tendency for the population to con- gregate in the cities and to withdraw from the rural com- munities. This tendency is clearly seen from the figures presented in the following table. TABLE CXVI. THE DISTRIBUTION OF URBAN AND RURAL POPU- LATION IN THE UNITED STATES IN 1880, 1890, 1900, 1910 * 181 ?0 18 W 19( X> 19, '0 Division of the country Urban (per cent) Rural (per cent) Urban (per cent) Rural (per cent) Urban (per cent) Rural (per cent) Urban (per cent) Rural (per cent) New England . . 68 7 31 3 75.8 24 2 79 9 20 1 83 3 16 7 Middle Atlantic 49.9 50.1 57.7 42.3 65.2 24.8 71.0 29 0 East North Central 27.5 72.5 37.8 62.2 45 2 54.8 52 7 47 3 West North Central 18.1 81.9 25.8 74.2 28.5 71.5 33 3 66 7 South Atlantic 15.1 84.9 19.5 80.5 21.4 78.6 25 4 74 6 East South Central 8.4 91.6 12.7 87.3 15.0 85.0 18.7 81 3 West South Central 12.2 87.8 15.1 84.9 16.2 83.8 22 3 77 7 23.6 76.4 29.3 70.7 32.3 67.7 36.0 64 0 36.2 63.8 42.5 57.5 46.4 53.6 56.8 43.2 UNITED STATES 29.5 70.5 36.1 63.9 40.5 59.5 46.3 53 7 . * Report of the Thirteenth Census (1910), vol. i, p. 57. Urban communities include all over 2500 population: rural communities include all others. What are the implications of such conditions for educa- tion? The answer to this question calls for the direction of our views along two different lines. In the first place, it is a pertinent theory that the failure 'of the school to meet com- munity needs has itself contributed toward present condi- tions which are not altogether desirable, through its failure to adapt itself to the needs of the smaller community and by providing the sort of an education which has tended to drive country children to the cities instead of providing an educa- 358 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION tion suited to the needs of rural life. In so far as such a the- ory is valid (and it is valid within limits only) the implica- tion for education is an extended adaptation of the character of school education to the diversified needs of different com- munities. In the second place, it must be recognized that the ten- dency toward greater urbanization has resulted in the loss of important forms of social-civic, vocational, cultural, and physical education previously provided informally by com- munity life, forms of education which must now be taken over in part at least by the school. Here we may note par- ticularly the greatly lessened opportunities for social and physical development through play in the modern city as compared with opportunities afforded in the rural com- munity or small town, the loss of rather direct and intimate contact with all the activities of civic agencies, the loss of close contact with industrial activities, the loss of the in- fluence of a sense of social and individual responsibility where one's every act is known by the entire community, and the diminished sense of belonging to a definite social unit. (2) The increasing heterogeneity of population in commun- ities : As is the case for the country as a whole so it is the case for communities (especially for towns and cities) that the population has tended within the past few generations to become more and more heterogeneous, and consequently the unity of life in communities has constantly diminished. Hence it is that the general stimuli of life in any given com- munity have tended to become less and less adequate for the social-civic education of the children of that community with the result that a further responsibility for increased attention to that form of education has been imposed on the school. Where this heterogeneity of population has been accompanied by an increased diversity of industries, as is SOCIAL PRINCIPLES 359. not infrequently the case, further implications for vocational education in the school are found. (3) The mobility of labor and population : Important for questions of social-civic and vocational education is the fact that labor and population has tended on the whole to be- come more mobile. Increased facilities for transportation and the extension of the labor market have made a change of residence from one community to another much more common than formerly. At the same time the breakdown of the older apprentice system has operated to reduce the ten- dency of the workman to remain in any one community. Thus, in the year 1912-13, from a study of the fathers of 22,027 boys thirteen years of age in the schools of sev- enty-eight American city school systems, Ayres secured the data presented in the following table. TABLE CXVH. BIRTHPLACES OF BOYS AND THEIR FATHERS IN SEVENTY-EIGHT CITIES * Birthplace Boys Fathers Number Per cent Number Percent Same city 12,699 4,233 3,069 2,026 58 19 14 9 3,601 5,349 4,364 8,713 16 24 20 40 Same State but not same city Other State in United States Foreign country . . Total 22,027 100 22,027 100 * Ayres, L. P., Some Conditions affecting Problems of Industrial Education in Seventy-eight American School Systems, Bulletin E. 135 of the Russell Sage Foundation, p. 7. The data giving the birthplaces of the boys and their fathers show that only about one father in six is now living in the city of his birth and that among the boys only a few more than one-half are now living where they were born. These facts are significant because it is often urged that the schools should develop courses 360 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION of industrial education that will directly prepare the children to enter local industries. But if present conditions maintain in the future the great majority of adults are not going to work in the same communities in which they received their schooling. It is clear that the conditions illustrated by Ayres's inves- tigation are significant not merely for problems of vocational education but also for other forms of education. 148. Changes in the Church and religion. The Church has always been one of the most conservative of social insti- tutions. As a result of that conservatism such changes as have taken place have meant: (a) a splitting-off of new denominations or sects from the parent institution; (6) a decrease or increase in the number of active adherents of the Church or of various denominations; (c) an increase or de- crease in the influence which the Church and its religion exercised over its adherents. Changes along these lines have not been without importance for education in this country within the past few generations, though their extent is very difficult to determine. The World Almanac for 1917 lists forty-nine different denominations with one hundred and seventy-one different sects in the United States. How far the Church and religion have lost unity through the development of numerous de- nominations and sects it is impossible to estimate. This much, however, is sure, that the power of the Church as an integrating factor in American society has diminished in some degree even within the past few decades and in some communities it must be recognized that social unity is seri- ously imperiled by denominational discord. Even more difficult to measure is the result of changes in the number of Church communicants and the real influence of the Church and its religion over those communicants. This much appears clear, however, that religion has ceased to exert the extent of influence which it formerly exerted in SOCIAL PRINCIPLES 361 certain directions for the people of America as a whole. Instances of such a loss of influence may be found in the disappearance of family prayers in many homes, the ob- servance of the Sabbath, the position of the Church as the community center, the lessened influence of the clergy. Extension of the activities of the Church in other directions has by no means recovered the influence which the Church once had. This has meant a distinct loss to education. If the loss were one merely of theological and ritualistic educa- tion it would not be so important. The great loss has been in moral and social education which have always been closely associated with religious education, and in the diminished power of one of the greatest of integrating factors. The implications for education arising from such changes in the Church and religion are recognition of the added responsibility for moral-social education in the school and recognition of the need for the school to assume added responsibility for its integrating function. In this connection it should be noted that acceptance of the principle that Church and State education must be sepa- rate hi this country and that religious instruction cannot be provided hi the public school has had the natural result of fostering denominational and sectarian schools, a result which was probably inevitable, but one which, if extended far, must inevitably lead to a direct conflict of educational policy. 149. Changes in the vocation. The nineteenth century was distinctly a period of industrial change if not industrial revolution in this country as well as for civilized society in general. Within that period came : (a) the greatly extended application of science to industry; (6) the substitution of machinery for hand labor; (c) the substitution of the factory system for the domestic system of industry; (d) the exten- sion of industrial competition; (e) the development of organ- 362 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION ized labor; (/) the growth of highly specialized processes and the greater subdivision of labor; (g) the consequent break- down of the older apprentice system; (h) the entrance of women into industry; (i) a change, particularly in this coun- try, in the relative importance of industrial efficiency and abundant natural resources as determining economic values; (j) a more intimate relation between government and indus- try; (k) the development of a tendency toward materialism in thought and life; (I) the development of an industrial democracy; (m) the development of labor legislation, espe- cially as affecting the occupations of women and children, as affecting the hours and conditions of labor, and as affecting the age of entrance into industry. All these and other changes which have taken place within the past few generations in the field of the vocation may be grouped on the basis of their educational significance under one or more of the following main heads : (1) changes in the amount and character of vocational education provided by the vocation itself and by the system of industry; (2) changes hi the requirements of the vocation and the conditions for entrance; (3) changes in the amount and character of non- vocational education provided by the vocation and by the system of industry, especially moral-social education. (1) Vocational education through the vocation: The dis- appearance of the older apprentice system which provided for the vocational education of the boy or girl in and through the vocation itself, the development of the factory system of industry which removed the field of industry from the home and smaller community where the boy and girl came into more direct and intimate contact with it and which itself provided a greatly lessened training for those who entered industry the development of highly subdivided processes in any given trade which has made it possible and economical for the individual to become acquainted with a single small SOCIAL PRINCIPLES 363 part only of any total trade or even any total process — all these and other changes have greatly diminished the amount of vocational education formerly provided by the vocation itself and have greatly modified the character of such educa- tion as is still provided in industry. (2) Requirements of the vocation and of industry: The development of industrial competition and its extension to international competition has created a demand for a higher degree of industrial efficiency than was ever before neces- sary. In this country heretofore the abundance of natural resources has afforded an advantage which in industrial competition has left a margin permitting wasteful use of natural resources and a certain amount of industrial ineffi- ciency. That margin must constantly grow less, and even if that were not the case, it is probable that the wasteful methods of the past would not long survive the strenuous competition of modern industry. Thus industry has in- creased its demand for higher efficiency, implying better industrial training at the same time that the vocation itself and industry has decreased the opportunities which it for- merly provided for such training. At the same time practice and legislation have constantly extended the age at which boys and girls enter on their voca- tions, thereby reducing the possibility of early vocational education in industry itself. In particular child-labor laws and compulsory school-attendance laws have taken the child out of the environment wherein vocational stimuli and vocational education were provided. It is imperative that the school should in some degree provide for equiva- lent preparation for the vocation. ( 1895 163,950 39,901 22,813 10,859 w"8 1900... 262,767 74,408 40,395 14,813 3-8 1905... 341,248 137,661 62.120 10,002 £ 1910 362,548 175,083 73,161 4,920 5,511 1915 434,925 284,294 102,516 81,743 3,351 1890 100,144 34,208 28,032 12,869 1 1895 |g 1900 205,006 314,856 58,921 94,873 45,746 65,684 22,159 24,869 Si 1905... 391,067 160,066 89,777 17,158 ** 1910 405,502 192,933 95,671 5,283 10,739 3 1915 503,985 312,358 136,131 35,148 10,671 * Report of the United States Commissioner of Education (1916), vol. n, pp. 487-89. The figures are actually higher since not all schools reported the necessary data. Between 1890 and 1900 the public secondary-school en- rollment increased 140 per cent, the number of pupils study - 1 First appearance in the Regulations for 1836; claimed for 1832. THE PLACE OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES 449 ing Latin increased 273 per cent, the number of pupils studying German increased 249 per cent, the number of pupils studying French increased 241 per cent, and the number of pupils studying Greek increased 139 per cent. Between 1900 and 1910 the total enrollment increased 78 per cent, the number of pupils studying Latin increased 38 per cent, the number of pupils studying German increased 135 per cent, the number of pupils studying French in- creased 81 per cent, and the number of pupils studying Greek decreased 63 per cent. Between 1910 and 1915 the total enrollment of the public secondary school increased 45 per cent, the number of pupils studying Latin in- creased 20 per cent, the number of pupils studying Ger- man increased 62 per cent, the number of pupils studying French increased 40 per cent, the number > of pupils study- ing Greek decreased 39 per cent, and the number of pupils studying Spanish showed a noticeable increase. 194. Present status. Few, if any, high schools in the United States (other than certain special schools) fail to offer foreign languages in their programs of study. Com- monly at least two foreign languages are offered. In many high schools some foreign language study is required of the majority of pupils at some stage in the secondary school course. Such figures as those presented in Table CXX emphasize the necessity of analyzing the values claimed to accrue from the study of foreign language, which at the present time occupies the attention of considerably more than one half of the entire number of pupils in the secondary schools and (at a rough estimate) consumes about one seventh to one fifth or more of all the time spent by all students in the secondary school. Here some comparisons with the higher-school programs of Germany and France are instructive. 450 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION TABLE CXXI. FOREIGN LANGUAGES IN THE PRUSSIAN HIGHER SCHOOLS FOR BOYS* • Latin Greek French English Total Gymnasium: Number of years studied . . . 9 6 7 Total number of "periods" . 68 36 20 i24 Per cent of total time 26.3 13.9 7.7 Elective 47.9 Realgymnasium : Number of years studied. . . . 9 7 6 Total number of "periods" . 49 29 18 96 Per cent of total time 18.7 11.0 6.9 36.6 Oberrealschule: Number of years studied . . . 9 6 Total number of "periods". 47 25 72 Per cent of total time 18.0 9.5 27.5 * Compiled from Lehrplane und Lehraufgaben fur die hSheren Schulen in Preussen (1901), pp. 4-6. From these figures it appears that in the Prussian Gymna- sium nearly one half of the entire course is devoted to the study of foreign languages, more than two fifths of the entire time being devoted to the study of the ancient languages. In the Realgymnasium nearly three eighths of the course is devoted to the study of foreign languages, about equally divided between Latin and the modern languages. In the Oberrealschule more than one quarter of the entire course is devoted to the modern foreign languages — French and English. It will be noted, of course, that the modern foreign languages are of much greater social and commercial value in Germany than in America. In the French secondary school also the study of foreign languages plays an important role. From the figures in Table CXXII it appears that from one fifth to one half of the course in the French lycee or THE PLACE OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES 451 TABLE CXXII. FOREIGN LANGUAGES IN THE FRENCH SECONDARY SCHOOL FOR BOYS * Latin Greek Modern Languages Total Section A: Length of course in years . . Number of "periods" Per cent of total time 6-7 33 23.6 4-5 . 16 11.5 6-7 20 14.3 69 49.4 Section B: Length of course in years . . Number of "periods" 6-7 33 6-7 32 65 Per cent of total time 23.3 22.6 45.9 Section C: Length of course in years . . Number of "periods" 6-7 33 6-7 22 55 55 Per cent of total time 21.6 14.4 36.0 Section D: Length of course in years . . Number of "periods" Per cent of total time 6-7 33 22.7 33 22.7 * Plan d'Etudet et Programmes de VEnseignement Secondaire des Garyons, p. S&-177 (llth edition). college is devoted to the study of foreign languages, more than one fifth of the entire time being devoted to the study of Latin except in Section D. Here again compari- sons with the situation in America are difficult because of the social and commercial importance of the modern for- eign languages in France and because of the close relation between the Latin and French languages. 195. A preliminary analysis of aims and values. Values claimed for the study of foreign languages in the American secondary school may be readily classified under two broad heads: (1) those which arise from the relatively direct and specific use of the foreign language as a medium of communi- cation for the expression of the user's thoughts or for the 452 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION interpretation of the thoughts of others; (2) those which arise indirectly from the study of the foreign language either by the effect of that study on the language-thought relation or through the improvement of certain general mental traits. Either of these grouped values may be further subdivided Thus under the head of direct and specific values should be considered: (a) the use of the foreign language for purposes of social intercourse, including its use in travel, etc. ; (b) its use for commercial purposes; (c) its instrumental use for reading purposes — its propaedeutic values; (d) its social- cultural use as a means for extending one's understanding and appreciation of the literature, history, life, customs, etc., of other peoples. Under the head of indirect and general values should be considered: (a) the use of the study of a foreign language for the development of ability to associate language and thought in one's native tongue; (6) the use of the study of a foreign language to development of certain general mental traits. For purposes of further analysis in the following sections all these values may be classified as follows : (1) Direct and specific values: (a) Social values. (6) Vocational values. (c) Instrumental-propaedeutic values. (d) Social-cultural values. (2) Indirect and general values: (a) General linguistic values. (6) General transfer values. In spite of the recognized interrelation of these values it is profitable to consider them separately in the following sections. 196. Values for social intercourse. In attempting to estimate the direct and specific values of the study of for- eign languages for purposes of social intercourse, e.g., in THE PLACE OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES 453 travel or in this country, at least three facts are obvious: (1) that such values apply to the modern languages only; (2) that such direct and specific values are undoubted and unquestioned for some individuals; (3) that such values are limited and contingent, i.e., they may be very great for a limited number of individuals and little or lacking for others. As a matter of fact they are important for a very restricted number of individuals, helpful but to an insignificant de- gree for a few others, and totally lacking for the great ma- jority of secondary-school pupils. Certainly less than five per cent of the pupils who study German in the secondary schools of this country will ever have the slightest need of utilizing that language for purposes of social intercourse and certainly less than one per cent of all pupils attending the secondary school will find such values in that study. The case is much the same for the study of French for purposes of social intercourse. The contingency that such a small proportion of secondary school pupils may have this oppor- tunity (not need) for the use of a foreign language for such purposes cannot justify any important position for the study of a foreign language in the public secondary school. The fact that in this country are large numbers of people whose native tongue is German, French, or any other tongue is an argument not for attaching importance to these languages for purposes of social intercourse but rather against any such procedure. The practice obtaining in certain communi- ties, where racial influence is strong, of giving undue prom- inence to the study of a foreign language for purposes of social intercourse is distinctly un-American and contra- social. 197. Values for commercial purposes. In the case of the values of the study of foreign languages for commercial purposes, as in the case of values for purposes of social inter- course, the same three facts are obvious: (1) that such 454 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION values apply to the modern languages only; (2) that such direct and specific values are undoubted and unquestioned for some individuals; (3) that such values are limited and contingent. Within the past decade or so the attention of the secondary school has been directed more toward the importance of the study of foreign languages for vocational purposes. This has resulted from two facts, the recognition in the secondary schools of the vocational aim in secondary education and the recognition of the relative inefficiency of our machinery for international commerce. The values of the study of certain foreign languages for commercial use has been readily accepted as valid by the school public and by school authorities, who have, however, frequently failed to recognize that commonly such values are highly limited and highly contingent. They have failed commonly to appreciate the fact that bilingual men and women in this country are in plentiful supply in the great majority of in- stances and that the smattering of German, French, or Spanish gained in the secondary school does not enable the individual so equipped to compete on anything like equal terms with the German- American, the French-American, or the Spanish-American. Whether or not this be accepted as a fact it must be recognized that the annual increase in the number of those added to the commercial population who utilize German, French, or Spanish is relatively small — small out of all proportion to the number of those who leave our secondary schools equipped with some knowledge of one or more of those languages. That as high as five per cent of the pupils in the public secondary schools should study a foreign language for commercial or vocational purposes would probably be a gross over-estimate. 198. Values for instrumental purposes. While ordinarily stated as a quite subordinate aim of the study of foreign languages in the secondary school, the instrumental-propse- THE PLACE OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES 455 deutic aim of the study may deserve passing notice if for no other purpose than to call attention to the fact that it is limited and highly contingent. The claims for this value are commonly stated somewhat in this form: in the higher vocations one should be able to keep abreast with the thought and activities of those in the same vocation in other countries; to do this he must be able to read techni- cal journals, etc., in the tongue in which they are originally written; hence he should be able to read French, German, etc. In such an argument both the necessity of such knowl- edge by the specialist is over-estimated and the contingency that many individuals will be concerned is over-estimated. In these days few writings of importance fail to receive no- tice by translation or in summary in the technical journals written in English. When such means are not adequate the expenditure of a little money for translation commonly saves much effort and produces equally valuable results. It is to be noted, too, that the contingency is practically limited to secondary-school pupils who are destined for a college course which may well include the study of a foreign lan- guage for instrumental purposes. 199. Values for social-cultural purposes. Beyond doubt one of the desirable results of the study of the language and literature of a foreign people may be an increased knowledge of the life, customs, institutions, thought, etc., of that peo- ple and thereby a means for the interpretation of one's own country, its life, thought, institutions, etc. The events of the present time illustrate clearly how important such inter- national understanding may be and how important it may be to have citizens of one country understand and appreciate those of another. In this connection, however, two import- ant problems arise: (1) How far can the ordinary course in a foreign language offered in the secondary school provide for this consummation? and (2) How far could the desirable 456 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION content elements of the study of foreign literature be pro- vided without involving the study of the foreign language? (1) Whatever be the possibility of deriving social-cultural values from the study of a foreign language in the secondary school we may be sure that there is a constant tendency on the part of its proponents who have enjoyed extended con- tact with its literature to overestimate the values commonly derived from the limited study of the secondary school pupil and to interpret those values in terms of their own extended acquaintance with the language, literature, and life of the people whose language is studied. It is at least questionable whether the secondary school pupil through a course of study which may have involved from two or three hundred hours to a thousand hours of contact with the field (a large pro- portion of which has been devoted to the language side pure and simple) ever approaches the point where the content values of the study assume importance for social-cultural values. Standards set by the Committee of Twelve ap- pointed by the Modern Language Association are as follows: TABLE CXXIII French German Pages read in first two years 350 to 375 225 to 250 Pages read in third year of course 400 600 400 400 Pages read in fourth year of course 600 1000 500 500 Total for four years of study 1350 to 1975 1125 to 1150 The amount of Latin literature ordinarily read in the secondary school is about 500 to 550 pages of Caesar, Cicero, and Vergil. How much content value (literature, history, etc.) can be gained from such a small amount of study can- not be estimated but it may well be doubted that such value is very great, especially when it is realized that greater atten- tion is devoted to language interpretation than to the con- tent. If, however, the ability to use the foreign language THE PLACE OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES 457 renders it possible, as it does, for the individual to continue and extend his acquaintance with the literature, life, etc., of the foreign people through further reading of that liter- ature after completing the secondary -school course, much greater social-cultural values must be assigned to the study of the foreign languages. Unfortunately, save in the case of certain pupils who continue their education in the college, experience has shown all too clearly that the competition of literature in the mother tongue is too strong and that little is to be expected in the continued use of the foreign language after the school course is ended. (2) The claim, readily granted, that certain social-cul- tural values may be derived from the study of foreign lan- guages has raised a second issue in the question whether or not such values cannot be more easily acquired in great part at a less expenditure of time and energy, either through the study of history (for a knowledge of the life, customs, etc., of the foreign people) or through the study of translations (for acquaintance with the literature, thought, customs, etc., of that people). Here it is claimed on the one hand that by such means (somewhat indirect) much of the charm of liter- ature and much of the characteristic spirit of a people is lost. This is doubtless true. On the other hand it is argued that it is just that finer element of "charm," just that subtler ele- ment of "spirit" that the secondary-school pupil does not and cannot get, save in very few instances, and that such ele- ments as may be extractible from the study of the foreign language in the original and not derivable in other indirect ways for the secondary-school pupil are small out of all proportion to the amount of time and energy expended. In this connection it may be observed that the pieces of foreign literature commonly read in the secondary school are just those for which there already exist excellent translations or those which might be adequately translated with ease. 458 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION 200. Summary and correlation of direct values. In the preceding sections each of the direct and specific values claimed for the study of foreign languages has been consid- ered in isolation and it has been pointed out that each of those values is limited and contingent. This is, of course, markedly the case with respect to the study of the ancient languages where direct values are highly restricted. Thus the values of the study of Latin and Greek for purposes of social intercourse and for commercial purposes are nil. Their vocational and instrumental values are limited to a few professions such as the ministry, law, medicine, literature, teaching, etc. Less limited and less contingent are the social- cultural values of the study of the classical languages, but there the study is conditioned by the considerations adduced in the preceding section. In the case of the modern lan- guages the direct and specific values of their study are much greater, but still decidedly limited and contingent. While no single direct value of the study of foreign lan- guages can justify any great amount of attention to those subjects in the program of studies and while their direct val- ues are limited and contingent to a degree not ordinarily ap- preciated, the coordination and correlation of all those direct and specific values establishes an aggregate value which is important for the secondary-school program. The number of pupils who may properly study a modern foreign language for purposes of social intercourse, plus the number who may study it for vocational purposes, plus the number of those who may study it for instrumental-propaedeutic purposes, plus the number of those who may study it for social-cultu- ral values, gives an aggregate number of pupils who may legitimately study a foreign language in the public secondary school large enough to warrant attention to its study therein. It is obvious, however, that such direct and specific values cannot justify the study of Latin by 503,985 pupils, the THE PLACE OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES 459 study of German by 312,359 pupils, and the study of French by 136,131 pupils at any one time in the secondary schools of this country, and the prescription or semi-pre- scription of the study of sonic foreign-language study by the majority of pupils in such schools. If any such justifica- tion can be found for the prominent position which foreign- language study now occupies in the schools it must rest in part at least on different grounds than the direct and specific values. It therefore remains to consider the possible indirect and general values which have been claimed for the study of foreign languages. This is, of course, particularly true of the study of the ancient languages. 201. Foreign-language study and " general discipline." In common with most subjects in the secondary-school program the foreign languages have always been justified by their proponents in part on the basis of their values for training such general mental functions as " concentra- tion," " accurate observation," "intelligent discrimination," " memory," " reasoning," etc. Such claims have been and are made for each of the foreign languages, but have been emphasized particularly in the case of the ancient languages for which relatively little direct and specific value can be established. An excellent example of this argument may be found in Lodge's eulogy of the study of the classical lan- guages:1 "The first and dominant object of all education is to teach the child, the boy or girl, to use his or her mind; that is, in other words, to teach them so to control their minds that they can apply them to any subject of study and especially to a subject which it is a duty and not a pleasure to master and understand. When this power to use and control the mind is once thoroughly attained, the boy or 1 Lodge, Senator H. C., Address before the Classical Conference at Princeton University, June 2, 1917, in West, A. F. (Editor), Value of the Classics, pp. 102-Oi 460 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION girl can then learn anything which his or her mind is capable of receiving and acquiring. Very few minds can master every branch of learning. The man who can learn languages may be wholly un- able to go beyond the rudiments of mathematics. Some minds again are much more powerful than others, just as some bodies are much more muscular than others, and are able to go further in any direc- tion than the average intelligence. We all have our mental limita- tions. But it is none the less profoundly true that those who have been taught to use and control their minds can apply them to any subject and go as far as their individual limitations permit. So far all, I believe, who have reflected upon the subject will agree. I think we may also agree that as any form of exercise will develop some muscles and some forms will develop all, so any kind of study properly pursued, whether it is arithmetic or Sanscrit roots, will develop muscles of the mind and give it the power of continuous application by a mere exercise of the will. Without attempting any detailed criticism of Senator Lodge's statements we may point out that it illustrates an argument for education which is based on a theory of the mind which has been abandoned by practically every psy- chologist. The thesis to which he assumes that " all who have reflected upon the subject will agree " is exactly the thesis to which every psychologist will disagree or at least ques- tion. In considering the problem of "general discipline," we may safely discard the implications of a faculty psychology and turn our attention to the question of the transfer or spread of mental efficiency acquired in connection with the study of foreign language to non-linguistic fields. The vital question is whether efficiency gained in and through and for the study of foreign language can be generalized and made operative in other studies and activities. In Chapter XI were outlined theories of the possibility, method, and extent of the " transfer of improvement " to " generalized experi- ence." It was there pointed out that the possibility of trans- fer is universally granted, that theories differ widely as to THE PLACE OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES 461 the method and extent of such transfer, and that in its ulti- mate analysis transfer must depend on the operation of the laws of dissociation. It was further pointed out that the degree of transfer must depend on the degree in which con- ditions are favorable for the operation of the laws of disso- ciation and therefore on the degree to which the materials of the subject may be manipulated in teaching so as to pro- vide conditions favorable for those processes, the character of the means available, and the methods of their presenta- tion. It is for these reasons erroneous to assume that all subjects are equally valuable for transfer or that transfer is dependent entirely on methods of teaching. Here as else- where the values of a subject are to be determined both by the nature of its materials and by the methods of teaching employed. Doubtless some transfer or spread of improved efficiency is possible from the study of any subject in any manner. If such transfer is to be made extensive, however, the most favorable materials must be chosen and the most favorable methods employed with recognition of transfer as a definite end. At present neither psychological theory nor experi- mental evidence can afford satisfactory criteria whereby to estimate the transfer values of the study of foreign lan- guage. However, it is unjustifiably arbitrary to ignore or minimize the facts that (after the time of the Greeks) lan- guages were almost the sole materials of formal education up to the end of the eighteenth century and the dominant materials up to the end of the nineteenth century, that the materials of foreign language study are at least favorable for exercise in mental functions of the greatest value, if trans- ferable, that such materials are well adapted for ready man- ipulation and may be made favorable for transfer, and that, with the possible exception of mathematics, the long-con- tinued study of foreign languages has developed a body of 462 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION recognized teaching method approached by no other sub- ject of study in the secondary-school program. Pending more definite knowledge of the method and extent of the transfer of improved efficiency one may safely assume the position of the Committee on Ancient Lan- guages, mutatis mutandis, for foreign language in general.1 Hence the Committee suggests that teachers of Latin and those responsible for the administration of the schools be on their guard against (1) expecting too much transfer, (2) expecting too little transfer, (3) expecting transfer to be automatic. Pending the estab- lishment of more conclusive theories of the "transfer of improved efficiency," the Committee recommends a careful analysis of the mental traits employed in the study of Latin, to determine what mental traits it is desirable to transfer from that field to other fields, what traits are actually transferred, and what other traits may be so transferred. The Committee expresses its belief that among the mental traits involved in the study of Latin wherein transfer is most to be expected will be found the following: habits of mental work, tendency to neglect distracting and irrelevant elements, ideals of thoroughness, ideals of accuracy and precision, and attitudes to- ward study and intellectual achievement. The character of the Latin language, the well-established organ- ization of materials for the study of the language, and the existence of a well-defined body of methods of teaching the language con- tribute to the development of the values indicated above. The Committee further holds that in proportion as such po- tential values are consciously the aim of the work in Latin and consciously developed, in like proportion conditions are favor- able to their realization as actual results of the work in Latin. 202. Values for language-thought relations. Among the claims for the values of the study of a foreign language is the claim that it aids greatly in the improvement of ability to use one's native tongue. As ordinarily presented arguments in support of that claim deal with a very vital issue in a very * Report of the Committee on Ancient Languages, Commission on the Re* organization of Secondary Education, Bureau of Education Bulletin. THE PLACE OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES 463 superficial way, being limited to etymological and vocabu- lary factors and almost neglecting the close relation between language use and the mental processes. Here we may revert to considerations adduced in Chapter XII. It was there stated that language is to be conceived not only as an instru- ment for the communication of thought, but also as an in- strument for thinking itself, and that the aims and values of language study in the secondary school must recognize that fact. It was also pointed out that the problem of the school in respect to language is to transform the pupil's language into an instrument for assisting and conveying thought, i.e., to make it a flexible intellectual instrument as well as a tool for ordinary expression. Finally, Dewey's sug- gestions concerning the way hi which this transformation is to be accomplished were interpreted to involve three ele- ments: (1) the development of a capital stock of words; (2) the development of increasing precision and accuracy in the use of words as related to thought; (3) the development of habits of interrelating those words so as to facilitate con- secutive thinking and consecutive discourse. It now re- mains to point out how the study of a foreign language may aid in those three processes. (1) Enlargement of vocabulary : While the problem of the enlargement of vocabulary, in the sense of increasing the number of word symbols more or less at the command of the individual, is in many ways so closely related to the pro- cesses of rendering terms more precise and accurate tools that the two processes are perhaps best considered together, two important factors involved in the study of a foreign lan- guage may be considered here. (a) Attention has been called previously to the fact that there is a constant tendency for the individual to accumulate verbal symbols, particularly abstract and general words and words representing qualities and relationships, without clear consciousness of their meanings. In the development of our use of language there comes a time when the ability to understand words heard or seen (especially in a context) far outstrips our ability to use those words to assist thought or to express thought, and only partially to grasp the thought expressed by those words when heard or seen in any new context. In the study of a foreign language, especially in the process of translation, consciousness of the meaning of the word of the mother tongue is a necessity before the thought can be interpreted, though exception to this state- ment must be made in cases where the term to be translated has a single equivalent in the mother tongue. That con- scious attention to the meaning of terms which may be min- imized in the use of the mother tongue when its use becomes more or less mechanical is highly fostered in the study of a foreign tongue, particularly in the process of translation. This arises from two facts: first, that in a large proportion of cases terms of the foreign language have not exact equiv- alents in the mother tongue; second, that the context does not give meaning to the specific term in the same ready way in which the context of the mother tongue has rendered aid to its interpretation. (6) The amount of aid afforded to the enlargement of vocabulary by a knowledge of words in a foreign tongue from which words in the mother tongue have been derived or to which they are etymologically related is doubtless at times much exaggerated. This should, however, not blind us to the undoubted fact that such etymological values exist and ought not be minimized. The number of words in the English language derived directly or indirectly from, the Latin has been estimated as high as fifty or sixty per cent of our total vocabulary. The number of words derived directly or indirectly from Greek has been estimated as high as twelve per cent. The number of words derived from THE PLACE OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES 465 French has been estimated as high as one third of our total vocabulary. The Anglo-Saxon element of our language is closely related etymologically to the German as a member of the same family of languages. These are facts which cannot safely be completely ignored. It should be noted also that words of the English language derived from Greek, Latin, and French sources are those most closely related to precise and accurate meanings (many were introduced for that very purpose), while our Anglo-Saxon words are the more common terms for " ordinary affairs and conveni- ences." (2) Rendering terms more precise and accurate instruments of thought and expression : The enlargement of the capital stock of vocabulary and the rendering it more precise and accurate are in reality part and parcel of the same process when properly conducted, and in dealing with the enlarge- ment of the vocabulary through the study of a foreign lan- guage we have already encroached to some extent on the present topic. In this specific connection importance may be attached to the study of a foreign language because of the practice which it affords in relating words to the thought. Terms in any one language seldom have exact equivalents in any other language. Hence the interpretation of one lan- guage in terms of another necessarily involves a constant comparison and weighing of terms more or less similar, a selection and choice of the correct words to express the thought, and a judgment of the thought to be conveyed by the word or words employed. Thus, consider the amount of comparison, discrimination, and choice involved in the translation of the Latin word res under varying conditions — thing, object, event, circumstance, occurrence, matter, con- dition, situation, act, property, factor, fact, reality, effect, sub- stance, possession, benefit, profit, advantage, interest, weal, cause, reason, ground, account, business, case, suit, etc., etc. 466 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION Now, increased precision and accuracy in the use of lan- guage and thought must result almost exclusively from practice in comparing, discriminating, and selecting the appropriate word for the desired thought element, and con' ditions favorable for such comparison, discrimination, and selection for the better relationing of words and thought are those which do not merely permit, but actually demand, the operation of those processes. Those conditions may be amply provided in the study of a foreign language. It is to be noted in this connection that, wherever single exact equivalents are associated in the foreign and the mother tongues, no such comparison, discrimination, selec- tion, and relationing can result, the mere substitution of symbols results, and hence increased precision and accuracy is impossible. Since the proportion pf exact equivalents differs in the various foreign languages this factor permits some measure of the relative values of the study of foreign languages with reference to those now under consideration. It is to be noted also that such values as those considered in the preceding paragraphs involve the close relationing of English and the foreign language with emphasis on trans- lation, etc., a fact to be recognized as an element affecting the question of methods of teaching foreign languages which will be briefly discussed in a later section. (5) The development of habits of interrelating words so as to facilitate consecutive thinking and consecutive discourse : Here possibly more than in any other respect the study of a foreign language may assist expression and thought. The English language, with its unusually large vocabulary of words borrowed from almost every possible source, with its abundance of approximate synonyms well adapted to ex- press numerous shades of meaning and to permit extensive discrimination in thinking and expression, is well adapted to its needs as an instrument of expression and for intellec- THE PLACE OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES 467 tual enterprises. To these ends also it is well adapted by reason of the relative flexibility which permits its easy manipulation. However, acquired in the early stages for purposes of social intercourse and employed commonly for purposes of everyday use in circumstances which do not emphasize its use as a precise and accurate instrument of thinking or expression, its use does not enforce such con- scious relationing of words and expressions as is involved in the use of a more synthetic language. Without a certain amount of such conscious relationing conditions are not favorable for the transformation of the use of language for the ordinary affairs of everyday life into its use as an intel- lectual instrument. It is just here that the study of a foreign language, espe- cially a language which is more synthetic, may be made of service for the accomplishment of such a transformation. In the study of a foreign language that conscious relationing of terms and phrases not only may but must take place and wherever translation is involved it must take place in the mother tongue as well as in the foreign language. Such a process becomes necessary as a result of vocabulary differ- ences previously emphasized and as a result of differences in word order and differences in inflectional usages in the mother tongue and in the foreign language. In the entire discussion of this section it is to be noted that there is emphasized not a transfer of elements from one lan- guage to another, not a transfer of mental functions, but the development of improved efficiency in the use of the mother tongue as related to the mental elements which can be grasped and retained only by means of its terms. In other words there is involved no question of general dis- cipline or transfer except as language, operating as an instru- ment in all intellectual enterprises, may be considered a common element in the training and application situations. ,8 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION 203. The mother tongue and foreign languages. It is im- portant to remember that in the study of the mother tongue and in the study of a foreign language one of the most funda- mental objectives is in many respects the same — the development of an ability to employ language (the mother tongue) as an instrument for thinking and for expression, as an intellectual instrument and as a social instrument. It is important also to remember that, while the use of lan- guage in both respects must ultimately be manifested in the use of the mother tongue, there is really involved a change in the mental processes which underly language use, i.e., the relation of language to mental life must constantly be kept in mind. If this theory be recognized as valid it must be recog- nized also that the general values of the study of the mother tongue and the indirect values of the study of a foreign lan- guage involve much the same problem. One of the most important and most persistent problems involved in the study of foreign languages in the secondary school raises the question whether it would not be better to devote more attention to the mother tongue and less to the foreign languages, whether more value could be gained from a relatively short additional period devoted to the study of English than from the relatively long period now devoted to the study of foreign languages. Two separate questions are involved here, one affecting the matter of direct social- cultural values, the other affecting the matter of indirect linguistic values. (1) Direct values : Among the direct values commonly claimed for the study of foreign languages were mentioned : (a) social-intercourse values; (6) vocational values; (c) in- strumental-propaedeutic values; (d) social-cultural values. All those values may be justified to some extent when con- sidered limited and contingent. The only serious point of conflict between the values of the study of English and the THE PLACE OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES 469 study of a foreign language, as far as direct values are con- cerned, is found in connection with the social-cultural values claimed for the study of a foreign language. Here the ques- tion arises whether the time devoted to the study of a foreign language for the purpose of becoming acquainted with for- eign literature, history, life, etc., through the medium of the foreign language can be justified when many of those values can be attained through the medium of the mother tongue or can be evaluated in relation to other studies carried on through the mother tongue. This point has already been considered in a preceding section. It need only be repeated here that it is very doubtful that the study of a foreign lan- guage can be justified for secondary-school pupils in any high degree on the basis of such values. (2} Indirect values : The indirect values commonly claimed for the study of a foreign language were classified as: (a) transfer values; (6) general linguistic values. Concerning the transfer values little can be said here further than has already been said in chapter XI. This much, however, may be added, that methods, habits, ideals, and attitudes cannot be transferred unless they are actually developed in the original training. It requires little examination to learn that as yet the teaching of English has failed to secure methods, habits, ideals, and attitudes of learning comparable to those secured in the teaching of foreign languages. Whether or not transfer is possible, this much is sure, that nothing can be transferred to other fields which has not been developed in the original training situation. The most important problem involved in the attempt to evaluate the study of the mother tongue and the study of a foreign language is found in connection with the relative merits of the two as helps in the employment of language as an instrument for intellectual enterprises and the com- munication of thought. Attention has previously been called 470 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION to the fact that the teaching of English suffers from some serious limitations, most of which arise from the fact that it is difficult to employ the language which is used primarily for purposes of everyday affairs for the purpose of convert- ing that same instrument into a tool for the handling of pre- cise and accurate notions. Training pupils in language use through composition, for example, suffers from the fact that the teacher can tell only that what the pupil says or writes expresses something intelligible: he cannot tell that it ex- presses correctly and clearly what the pupil was striving to express. In other words he cannot relate the pupil's English to the pupil's thought. On the other hand, in the translation of a passage in a foreign language the exact thought to be interpreted is a known factor and the teacher presumedly knows what use of the mother tongue will precisely and accurately express that thought. For the teacher to know that the pupil is properly relating language to thought he must know both the thought to be expressed and the lan- guage in which it should be expressed. This is possible in a foreign language: it is impossible in employing English alone. In all this it is, of course, to be noted that detailed word relationing is the important element. The interpreta- tion of larger thought units, the general -plot, or argument, is quite another matter. The problem here involved is the improvement of language use, not the interpretation in general terms of content. The very facility with which the pupil employes his mother tongue in ways adequate for the ordinary affairs and conveniences of everyday life is one of the greatest handi- caps to the attempt to convert it into a more effective intel- lectual instrument. The pupil rebels against attempts to improve an instrument which is quite satisfactory to his immature mind. 204. The relative values of foreign languages. The THE PLACE OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES preceding considerations have established some critei for judging the relative values of the study of the different foreign languages commonly found in the program of the secondary school. Some limited application of those criteria may be made here. (1) Direct values, with emphasis on direct and specific use : For purpose of social intercourse and for commercial pur- poses it is clear that the values of the ancient languages, Latin and Greek, are nil and the values of the modern lan- guages, while high, are limited to a relatively small number of individuals and for the majority of secondary-school pupils are very contingent. For certain other vocational purposes, for instrumental-propaedeutic purposes all study of foreign language is limited and contingent. For social- cultural purposes it would be difficult to estimate the rela- tive values of the different foreign languages. He would be a daring individual who would attempt to estimate the relative social-cultural values of Greek, Roman, German, French, and Spanish civilizations for the American citizen. It should be remembered also that here values are doubtful in view of the possibility of attaining them more economi- cally through the medium of translations and through the study of the social sciences. (2) Indirect values, with emphasis on general values and the learning process : The unsatisfactory nature of our knowl- edge of transfer values makes it an almost hopeless task to attempt to estimate transfer values of the various foreign languages. If such values exist to an appreciable extent it is a tenable thesis that the differences which are found be- tween the analytic character of English, French, and Span- ish, and the synthetic character of German, Latin, and Greek, may make a difference in transfer values between the two groups. The writer would hazard as an a-priori estimate the transfer values of foreign-language study, the 472 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION ascending order as follows: Spanish, French, German, Greek, Latin. Numerous investigations have been made of the relative standing of pupils studying different foreign languages in the secondary school. The results of those investigations have almost invariably indicated some super- iority in favor of those studying Latin. However, the inves- tigations themselves have been so unsatisfactory for the most part that little dependence can be placed on the re- sults, largely because they have failed to show whether that superiority was due to the effect of the study of Latin or to the fact that pupils of higher selection study Latin.1 That the study of a foreign language contributes some- thing to one's ability to use his own language can scarcely be disputed. The pertinent questions are: What is the amount of that contribution? and, What are the relative values of different foreign languages for that purpose? The first of these two questions has been considered above and the ground taken that the amount of that contribution affords justification for the study of a foreign language by secondary-school pupils. The second question remains to be considered. What are the relative linguistic values of the study of Spanish, French, German, Greek, Lathi? The answer to this question will be considered, first, in a-priori theory, and, secondly, by interpreting the results of experi- mental investigations. In the a-priori theory presented in preceding sections it was pointed out that the study of a foreign language assists in the development of linguistic ability by increasing the 1 Cf. correlation studies by Burris, W. P., Wissler, C., Parker, S. C. Brinkerhoff, Morris, and Thorndike — all quoted by Thorndike, E. L., Educational Psychology (1903 edition), pp. 35-38; Dotey, A. 1., reported by Strayer, G. D., The Abilities of Special Groups of High-School Students in the Subjects which they Studied, School Review Monographs, vol. m, pp. 7-11 ; Starch, D., "Some Experimental Data on the Value of Studying Foreign Languages," School Review, vol. xxin, pp. C97-703; vol. xxv, pp. 241-48. THE PLACE OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES 473 extent of vocabulary, by rendering vocabulary more precise and accurate as an intellectual instrument, and by aiding the development of habits of interrelating words so as to facilitate consecutive thinking and consecutive discourse. It was pointed out also that vocabulary development is assisted through the study of a foreign language by the addi- tion of new terms, by the necessary comparison, discrimina- tion, and selection of terms as related to thought elements. One measure, therefore, of the relative values of the study of foreign languages is to be found in the differences in their vocabularies demanding careful comparison, discrimination, and selection of terms in the mother tongue as expressing the intended thought. Now in this respect there is a great difference between the modern languages and the ancient languages. The modern languages all express modern thought in the modern way. Both the thought and the manner of expressing the thought are much closer in the case of modern languages than in the case of an ancient language and a modern language. At first thought this might appear to offer an advantage in favor of the study of a modern language. The opposite is, however, the case where not content but practice in comparison, discrimina- tion, and selection are the important elements involved. The closer the vocabulary and the manner of expressing thought in the case of two languages the less is the oppor- tunity and necessity for those elements. The more different the vocabularies and the manner of expressing thought the greater is the opportunity and necessity for careful compari- son, discrimination, and selection without which the inter- pretation into the mother tongue is of little value other than for content. If this be true we cannot do otherwise than assign superiority to the study of Latin and Greek as far as these linguistic values alone are concerned. In developing habits of interrelating words for the pur- 474 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION pose of facilitating consecutive thought and consecutive discourse also it was suggested that assistance may be ren- dered by the study of a foreign language through practice in analyzing related terms and expressions. Here the factors involved in evaluating foreign languages as assisting this process are (a) differences in word order, and (6) differences in inflectional and syntactical usages. The greater these differences, the greater the necessity imposed on the pupil of consciously attending to the interrelating of terms em- ployed for the expression of thought. In point of the amount of difference in word order there can be no hesitation in classifying the Romance languages, French and Spanish, in a class closely similar to English, classifying Latin and Greek as far removed from English, and German as occupy- ing a position between the other two classes, nearer the first than the second. Such values as arise here affect the lan- guages in ascending order: French and Spanish, German, Greek, Latin. In point of the amount of difference in inflectional and syntactical usages the classification would place French and Spanish relatively close to English, German, Latin, and Greek relatively remote from English. Experimental investagations of the relative values of the foreign languages as studies are more numerous than valu- able or reliable. As samples we may consider two investiga- tions, one of which is claimed to indicate great improvement of linguistic ability as the result of the study of Latin as compared with the results of the study of German, the other held by the investigator to indicate little improvement as the result of the study of Latin. (a) Perkins conducted an experiment in the commerical department of the Dorchester (Massachusetts) High School where the study of Latin had been introduced as an elective in the commercial courses on the theory that it would im- prove the use and understanding of the pupils' English. THE PLACE OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES 475 After the course had been put into operation and had ap- proved itself to the empirical judgment of those responsible an attempt was made to secure quantitative measurements of the results. The methods employed and the results obtained may be stated in the investigator's words : x Obviously, the first step was to select two sets of pupils of equal ability, one set in the second year of Latin, and the other in the second year of a modern language. Accordingly we chose pupils such that each group had virtually the same average mark in Latin, on the one hand, and modern language, on the other, and also in English, with the result, in actual figures, that the non-Latin group in the two studies averages 0.5 of 1 per cent the higher. To make doubly sure that the Latin pupils were not favored, the non-Latin group were taken from the section of Mr. Murdock, a classical scholar, who in his English teaching emphasizes the Latin element in the language. There were twenty -five in each set, all in the second year of the school. Six measurements were made with the results indicated in the following table. TABLE CXXIV Averages c / groups Testt Latin (per cent) German (per cent) 1 Spelling 82.5 72.6 2. Use of words in sentences 57.5 40.6 3. Definitions and parts of speech 69.5 33.3 4. Meanings of words and spelling (first test) 57.0 27.5 5. Excellence in vocabulary 36.0 6.8 6. Meaning of words and spelling (second test) 65.3 12.3 If anything this table proves too much. 1 Perkins, A. S., " Latin as a Vocational Study in the Commercial Course," The Classical Journal, vol. x, pp. 7-16; cf. also same "Latin as a 'Practical' Study," The Classical Journal, vol. vm, no. 7. 476 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION Starch investigated a number of phases of the relation of the study of foreign languages to linguistic development. Some of the results obtained are indicated in the following tables.1 TABLE CXXV. MEDIAN GRADES IN (UNIVERSITY) FRESHMAN ENGLISH 54 students who entered with Latin only 83 . 9 per cent 97 students who entered with German only 82.7 per cent TABLE CXXVI. SIZE OF VOCABULARY OF LATIN AND NON- LATIN STUDENTS University students High-school juniors Number Grade per cent Number Grade per cent Latin groups 139 50 60.9 58.2 14 32 54.7 50.2 Non-Latin group TABLE CXXVII. EFFECT OF FOREIGN-LANGUAGE STUDY ON KNOWLEDGE OF GRAMMAR AND USAGE: HIGH-SCHOOL PUPILS Yeart of foreign-language study Number of pupils Average scores for knowledge of grammar Average scores for correctness of usage o 12 14.7 32 2 8 weeks 50 20.8 43 0 1 year 18 25.5 43 4 2 years 39 24.8 45 9 3 years 27 28.6 47 7 205. The place of foreign languages. The place which instruction in foreign languages is to occupy in the American secondary school must be determined by the relative impor- 1 Starch., D., loc. cit. THE PLACE OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES 477 tance which is to be attached to the different values consid- ered in the preceding sections. Until within recent years the greater importance has been attached to the indirect and general values ascribed to the study of a foreign language Within recent years the tendency has been in the directiol of emphasis on the direct values of such study. If that ten dency proceeds to its logical end it must be recognized that j the relative prominence heretofore given to foreign language I should be greatly decreased, since those direct values are limited and contingent. On the other hand, if recognition is to be given to indirect and general values, rather extensive attention must be given to the study of foreign languages. Justification for the large proportion of secondary-school pupils at present studying foreign languages and for the amount of time at present devoted to the study of foreign languages in the secondary school cannot be found on the basis of direct and immediately utilitarian values. On the other hand, if claims for general and indirect values are valid, some grounds may be found for considerable attention to foreign-language study. While any adequate consideration of methods of teaching a foreign language cannot be attempted here, it may be noted in passing that if direct values alone are to determine the aims of foreign language instruction there can be no doubt that the so-called " direct methods " in some form must obtain. On the other hand, if the aims are dominantly determined by the indirect values great importance must be attached to the use of the mother tongue and to transla- tion. In the majority of classes it is altogether probable that methods of teaching are demanded which emphasize the best elements of the " direct method " without sacrificing the importance of the mother tongue and without neglecting the values of translation. 478 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION PROBLEMS FOR FURTHER CONSIDERATION 1. Make a survey of the commercial houses of any town and ascertain the demand for those who have a knowledge of foreign languages for com- mercial purposes. 2. Analyze the work in German or French in any high school to determine what social-cultural values are involved. 3. To what extent is a knowledge of Latin or Greek valuable to a lawyer? — to a physician? — to a clergyman? 4. Evaluate the various methods of teaching a modern foreign language in terms of the values considered in this chapter. 5. In a large high school carry out the following experiment: From pupils now in the senior class select two groups, group 1 composed of those who studied one and only one foreign language during the sophomore years, group 2 composed of those who in the freshman and sopho- more years studied no foreign language; examine the grades in English received by those pupils in the last grade of the elementary school or the work of the first term of the high school; pair off pupils in the two original groups according to the grades received in the earlier work in English, so as to secure two groups of equal English ability as thus measured, leaving exceptional cases out of further considera- tion. Compare the relative standing in English in the junior year of the high school of the two groups. Compare their relative standing in all other high-school work in the junior year. 6. Devise a study of the relative accomplishment of students studying Latin or French, or German, somewhat along the lines laid down in the above. 7. In any high school estimate as nearly as possible the numbers of pupils who may properly study a foreign language for its direct-use values. 8. Make a study of the college-entrance requirements in foreign languages. 9. In any high school determine the proportions of pupils who drop Latin, French, or German after one year of study; after two years : after three years. 10. What are the arguments for and against the study of a foreign language in the first or second year of the junior high school, i.e., at about the ages of 12-13. 1 1 . What are the arguments for and against the requirement of some foreign- language study some time in the secondary-school course? SELECTED REFERENCES I. General: Dewey, J., How We Think, especially pp. 170-87. Flagstad, C. B., Psychologic der Sprachpadagogik. Henderson, E. N., Textbook in the Principles of Education, pp. 359-82. THE PLACE OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES 479 Judd, C. H., The Psychology of High-School Subjects, chap. vn. O'Shea, M. V., Linguistic Development and Education, pp. 298-327. Von Sallwiirk, E., Funf Kapitel vom Erlemen fremder Sprachen. Starch, D., Educational Measurements, chaps, xi-xin. II. Ancient languages: Bennett, C. E., and Bristol, G. P., The Teaching of Latin and Greek in the Secondary School, especially pp. 1^49, 217-24. Corcoran, C., Studies in the History of Classical Teaching. Headlam, J. W., The Teaching of Classics in the Secondary Schools of Germany, Board of Education (England), Special Reports, vol. xx. Kelsey, F. W., Latin and Greek in American Education. Lodge, G., " The Value of the Classics in Training for Citizen- ship," Teachers College Record, vol. xvin, pp. 111-121. National Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary Educa- tion, Report of Committee on Ancient Foreign Languages, Bureau of Education Bulletin. Perkins, A. S., "Latin as a Vocational Study in the Commercial Course," The Classical Journal, vol. x, pp. 7-16; cf. also same, "Latin as a 'Practical' Study," The Classical Journal, vol. vin, no. 7. Rand, E. K., Wenley, R. M., and Shorey, P., "A Symposium on the Value of Humanistic, Particularly Classical, Studies," School Review, vol. xvin, pp. 441-59, 513-29, 585-617. Slaughter, M. S., The High-School Course in Latin. Snedden, D., Problems of Secondary Education, chap. xni. West, A. F. (Editor), Value of the Classics. Committee of Ten, Report on Secondary School Studies, especially pp. 60-885. Committee of Twelve of the American Philological Association Report on Courses in Latin and Greek for Secondary Schools. III. Modern languages: Armstrong, E. C., " The Place of Modern Languages hi American Education," School Review, vol. xix, pp. 596-609. Bagster-Collins, E. W., The Teaching of German in Secondary Schools, especially pp. 6-38. Bahlsen, L., The Teaching of Modern Languages. Board of Education (England); Special Reports on Educational Subjects, vol. n, pp. 648-79; vol. in, pp. 461-533, et al. Breul, K., The Teaching of Modern Foreign Languages. Committee of Ten, Report on Secondary School Studies, especially pp. 86-103 (Bureau of Education edition). Committee of Twelve of the Modern Language Association of America, Report. 480 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION Eggert, B., Der Psychologische Zusammenhang in der Didaktik des Neusprachlichen Reformunterrichts. Hall, G. S., Educational Problems, vol. n, chap. xv. Handschin, C. H., The Teaching of Modern Languages in the United States, Bureau of Education Bulletin (1913), no. 3. Jespersen, P., How to Teach a Foreign Language. Snedden, D., Problems of Secondary Education, chap. xiv. Extended bibliographies: On Modern Languages, Handschin, C. H., The Teaching of Modern Languages in the United States; see above, pp. 107-49. CHAPTER XIV THE PLACE OF MATHEMATICS IN THE PROGRAM OF STUDIES 206. Historical development of the study of mathematics. In the history of secondary education mathematics has held a position second only to the classical languages and litera- tures. While the study had appeared in the secondary schools of Europe in some instances before the beginning of secondary education in America, it had never gained a firm foothold, appearing but occasionally in the form of ele- mentary arithmetic. In the Latin grammar schools of the American colonies elementary instruction in arithmetic appeared in some cases at an early period but never became prominent until about the beginning of the nineteenth cen- tury. In the Public Lathi School of Boston, for example, it was not until some time between 1814 and 1828 that arith- metic, algebra, geometry, and trigonometry were intro- duced. Meanwhile impetus had been given to the study of mathe- matics in the academy, beginning in the Franklin Academy with its separate mathematical department. It soon spread to nearly every academy established. Thus, when the high- school movement began in the third decade of the nine- teenth century, mathematics had already found a place in the secondary-school program, and in the first program of the English Classical (High) School of Boston in 1821 were included arithmetic, algebra, geometry, trigonometry, navigation, surveying, and mensuration. Thus also by the Massachusetts act of 1827 (the first high-school law in America) the teaching of algebra, geometry, and surveying 482 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION was made mandatory in the high school of every town in the State having a population of five hundred families or over. As the high-school movement spread during the nineteenth century, mathematics (algebra, geometry, and trigonometry), became a regular part of the program in high schools through- out the country. Up to the beginning of the nineteenth century a knowl- edge of the fundamentals of arithmetic constituted the only requirement in mathematics for college entrance, and that requirement was not universal until that time. Algebra was made an admission requirement at Harvard in 1820 and in many other colleges by the middle of the century. By that time also geometry had begun to find a place in college- entrance requirements. By 1875 algebra and geometry had become firmly established as college-entrance require- ments and in most colleges have been thus retained up to the present. In 1912 every college which prescribed any subject other than English prescribed algebra and geometry. The position which mathematics has occupied in the program of the public secondary school for the period 1890 to 1915 may be seen from the figures presented in Table CXIX. Those figures indicate that during the greater part of that period at any one time approximately one half of all pupils were engaged in studying algebra and nearly one quarter in studying geometry. From this brief resume it may be seen that the study of mathematics in the American secondary school possesses all the advantages and all the disadvantages which arise from the prestige of tradition. As a result of its important position in the program of studies it has developed a body of material and method of teaching which is well-organized and standardized. Its actual values have doubtless been enhanced in the minds of the public by the force of tradition. It has benefited by the fostering protection of college- THE PLACE OF MATHEMATICS 483 entrance requirements which have been powerful influ- ences determining the character and place of mathematics in the secondary school. 207. Present status of mathematics instruction. With the possible exception of a few special-type schools practi- cally every secondary school in the United States includes algebra and plane geometry in its program of studies and in most schools those subjects are rigidly prescribed for the majority of pupils. Hence a very large proportion of pupils in the secondary school are always engaged in the study of mathematics, few pupils pass through the first part of their secondary education without some contact with the subject, and a measurably large proportion of the total time devoted to secondary education is occupied in the study of mathe- matics. The latest available returns (those for 1914-15) indicate the following figures for the numbers of pupils engaged in mathematical studies. TABLE CXXVIII. PUPILS ENGAGED IN MATHEMATICAL STUDIES 1914-15 * Public schools Private schools All schools Algebra 569,215 309,383 17,220 48.84% 26.55 1.48 66,801 36,681 5,258 53.15% 29.18 4.18 636,016 346,064 22,478 49.26% 26.80 1.74 Geometry .... Trigonometry . Total 895,818 76.87 108,740 86.51 1,004,558 77.80 * Report of the United Stales Commissioner of Education (1916), vol. n, pp. 487-89. The relatively small amount of overlapping permits totaling. Where algebra is studied five periods per week for one year and geometry for a like amount of time about one eighth of the total time of a pupil who remains four years in the secondary school is devoted to mathematics. If he re- mains one or two years about one fourth of his total time is 484 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION devoted to mathematics. Schools in which less than that amount of time is devoted to mathematics are fewer than schools in which a greater amount of time is devoted to it. Mathematics, however, is seldom required for all pupils throughout the course, and in this respect our practice differs from practice in Prussia and France. Conditions in Prussia may be seen from the following figures. TABLE CXXIX * Length of course in years Total number of periods t Per cent of total time Gymnasium 9 34 13 1 Realgymnasium 9 42 16.0 Oberrealschule . . . 9 47 17 9 * Lehrplane und fehraufgaben fur die hoheren Schulen in Preussen (1901), pp. 4-6. t Cf. Tables LXXXIV-LXXXVII. Until within recent years the theory was almost universal that mathematics (of a higher grade than arithmetic) should be required of all pupils passing through the secondary school. Thus in the programs suggested by the Committee of Ten in 1893 four periods per week of algebra were pre- scribed for all pupils in all courses in the first year of the high school, three periods of geometry per week in the sec- ond year, two periods of algebra and two periods of geometry in the third year. In addition the Committee provided an option of three periods of trigonometry and higher algebra in the fourth year.1 Even more urgent were the recommen- dations of the Committee on College Entrance Requirements through its sub-committee on mathematics in 1899, when it stated that : " To the close of the secondary -school course the 1 United States Bureau of Education, Report of the Committee on Second- ary School Studies, pp. 46-47. 485 required work in mathematics should be the same for all pupils," and that " In the secondary school, work in mathe- matics should be required of all pupils throughout each of the four years of the course." 1 A reaction against such a conception has been growing in force within the past decade or two, the bases for that reac- tion being found: (1) in an increased recognition of the factor of individual differences in the capacities, abilities, interests, and probable futures of pupils; (2) in an increased recogni- tion of the needs of children who leave before the close of the high-school course, especially their vocational and social needs ; (3) in a re-interpretation and re-direction of theories of the transfer of improved efficiency; (4) a lessening of the influence of the colleges over the secondary school; (5) changing conceptions of the social functions of the public secondary school; and (6) a recognition of the meaning of retardation and elimination. 208. Preliminary analysis of aims and values. For pur- poses of analysis the values commonly claimed for the study of secondary-school mathematics may profitably be con- sidered under two general headings: (1) those values which arise from the relatively direct and specific use of mathe- matics; (2) those values which may arise indirectly through the development of mathematical concepts or through the transfer of improved efficiency. Either of these grouped values may again be subdivided. Thus under the head of direct and specific values should be considered: (a) the values of mathematics as measured by the directly practical application of its principles and processes to those affairs of life common to most people whatever be their vocations; (6) the values of mathematics as measured by the directly 1 Report of the Committee on College Entrance Requirements (July, 1899), published by the National Educational Association, University of Chicago Press, p. 148. 486 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION practical application of its principles and processes in special professions or special parts of certain vocations; (c) the values of mathematics as measured by the direct application of its principles and processes to other sciences. Under the head of indirect values may be considered: (a) values claimed to arise from the study of mathematics as meas- ured by the development of generally valuable concepts of number and space relations, together with the development of certain mathematical thought modes; (6) the values claimed to arise from the study of mathematics as measured by the transfer or spread to other fields of improved effi- ciency gained in that field. For the purpose of further analysis in the following sections those claimed values may be classified and considered under the following heads: (1) Direct and specific use values: (a) General use values; (b) Specific vocational values; (c) Propaedeutic values. (2) Indirect and general values: (a) Conceptual values; (6) Transfer values. The interrelation of these values is recognized. Neverthe- less separate analysis of each group is profitable. 209. Mathematics in the affairs of everyday life. There is no subject, except the use of the mother tongue, which is so intimately connected with everyday life, and so necessary t& the successful conduct of affairs. Wherever we turn in these days of iron, steam, and electricity, we find that mathematics has been the pioneer and guarantees the results. Were its backbone ot mathematics removed, our material civilization would inevitably collapse. But widespread as are the applications of mathematics and enormous as is its practical value, it may be justly urged that to the large majority of people its importance, though great, is indirect, and that the average citizen has but little need of mathe- THE PLACE OF MATHEMATICS 487 matical facts, or even an opportunity to use them beyond the merest elements of arithmetic.1 In this passage Young has well stated a truth almost universally recognized by the mathematician but frequently ignored by the layman and even by schoolmen, who often fall into one or both of two fallacies by (a) failing to recog- nize the relative values of different parts of a field of knowl- edge which go under the same name, or (6) failing to dis- tinguish between knowledge which is of universal value to civilization through a relatively few specialists and that which all should possess.2 The second fallacy is recognized by Schultze: 3 It would be an error to infer, from the great usefulness of math- ematics to our civilization, an equal practical usefulness to every individual. The percentage of students who are likely to have practical use for mathematics, after leaving school or college, is cer- tainly small. And by Yocum 4 who emphasizes the distinction ignored by Mr. Spencer between subject matter useful to the race through the specialist, and sub- ject matter directly useful to the majority of individuals who are not specialists. Little of the secondary -school mathematics as it is now organized can be considered of direct value to the average individual for the practical purposes of everyday life. The general-use values of secondary-school mathematics are small. 1 Young, J. W. A., The Teaching of Mathematics, p. 13. This and other extracts are quoted with the permission of the publishers, Longmans, Green & Co. 2 Cf. Section 165. 3 Schultze, A., The Teaching of Mathematics in Secondary Schools, pp. 17-18. This and other extracts are quoted with the permission of the pub- lishers, The Macmillan Company. 4 Yocum, A. D., "Mathematics as a Means to Culture and Discipline," The Mathematics Teacher, vol. vi, p. 136. 488 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION 210. Mathematics in various vocations. A subject is also valuable as preparation for the contingency that the child in the future may take up an occupation requiring knowl- edge of the subject in question. For mathematics this value is marked, because there is a large and growing number of occupations which require a knowledge of mathematical results.1 It must be recognized that certain occupations call for an extended knowledge not only of mathematical results, but also of mathematical principles and processes. The number of persons engaged in such occupations is small. Many other occupations call for some knowledge of mathe- matical results. A knowledge or use of mathematical results is, however, a far different thing from a knowledge of math- ematical principles and processes or the ability to derive mathematical results. In the majority of occupations which involve the use of mathematical results those who employ them commonly depend on fairly simple formulae which ordinarily are reduced to arithmetical terms in tables. This is recognized by Schultze: 2 The majority of business or professional callings require no algebra, geometry, or trigonometry, and even the professions which use those subjects do so to a much smaller extent than is generally supposed. There are navigators, surveyors, and engineers who make their calculations in an almost mechanical manner, without having perfectly clear notions of the underlying mathematical principles. Only for those few men who become original designers and investigators is true mathematical skill and knowledge indis- pensable. And by Smith:3 It is well to understand, in the first place, that geometry is not studied, and never has been studied, because of its positive utility in commercial life or even in the workshop. . . . 1 Young, J. W. A., op. cit., p. 14. 2 Schultze, A., op. dt., p. 18. 3 Smith, D. E., Tlie Teaching of Geometry, pp. 7, 90. THE PLACE OF MATHEMATICS 489 All the facts (of geometry) that a skilled mechanic or an engineer would ever need could be taught in a few lessons. All the rest is either obvious or is commercially and technically useless. The actual amount of algebra needed by a foreman in a machine shop can be taught in about four lessons, and the geometry or mensuration that he needs can be taught in eight lessons at the most. The necessary trigonometry may take eight more. . . . The values of secondary-school mathematics (or some parts of it) are undoubted for some parts of certain profes- sions. They are, however, less than is commonly thought and must be considered as highly contingent for most pupils. 211. The propaedeutic values of mathematics. So completely is nature mathematical that some of the more exact natural sciences, in particular astronomy and physics, are in their theoretic phases largely mathematical in character, while other sciences which have hitherto been compelled by the com- plexity of their phenomena and the inexactitude of their data to remain descriptive and empirical, are developing towards the mathematical ideal, proceeding upon the fundamental assumption that mathematical relations exist between the forces and the phenomena, and that nothing short of the discovery and formula- tions of these relations would constitute definitive knowledge of the subject. Progress is measured by the closeness of the approxima- tion to this ideal formulation.1 That a knowledge of mathematical results, principles, and processes is requisite for advanced work in the various sci- ences, mental and social as well as material, is obvious. Propaedeutic values are real values for the study of mathe- matics. It should be obvious, however, that for secondary- school pupils those values are limited and contingent. As propaedeutic for secondary-school science and the elementary science courses in college the values of secondary-school mathematics is commonly over-estimated, though attention has frequently been called to the very small amount of 1 Young, J. W. A., op. cit., p. 15; cf. Schultze, A., op. cit., p. 15. 490 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION mathematical knowledge required for effective study of physics and chemistry. Thus Milliken: 1 There is no mathematics needed in elementary physics even as it is now, except the simplest algebraic equations with one un- known, and the single geometrical proposition of the proportion- ality of the sides of similar triangles. On the whole it is probably safe to say that the number of pupils for whom the propaedeutic values of the study of mathematics are appreciably important is relatively small, being somewhat less than the number of pupils who continue their education beyond the secondary -school stage. 212. Direct values limited and contingent. Critics of the study of supra-arithmetical mathematics are almost unani- mous in their judgments that the study of algebra, geome- try, and other higher mathematics in the secondary school, as they are at present organized, cannot be justified for all pupils or even for any large proportion of pupils on the basis of their direct and specific values. Thus Schultze: 2 If mathematics, however, had no value as a mental discipline, its teaching in the secondary schools could hardly be justified solely on grounds of its bread-and-butter value. And Karpinski: 3 The practical side of mathematics has frequently been over- emphasized in popular discussions of its function. . . . And yet, were we to confine the instruction in arithmetic, geometry, algebra, and trigonometry to these phases which enjoy a reasonable meas- ure of actual application, the time devoted to these subjects could be cut in half. Mathematical instruction must justify itself as educational material aside from its applied values. 1 Milliken, R. A., School and Society, vol. in, p. 167. 2 Schultze, A., op. dt., p. 18. 3 Karpinski, L. C., p. 132, of Johnston, C. H. (Editor), High-School Education. THE PLACE OF MATHEMATICS 491 And Young: l The average citizen has but little need of mathematical facts, or even opportunity to use them beyond the merest elements of arithmetic. In interpreting such statements as these three facts should be kept in mind: (1) that the direct and specific val- ues of algebra, geometry, and other secondary -school mathe- matics as at present organized must always be limited to certain groups of pupils and cannot be universal; (2) that they are contingent rather than certain; (3) that the state- ments refer to mathematics as organized into systematic sciences, wherein logical and purely mathematical relation- ships determine the choice and arrangement of materials and the methods of their presentation in teaching. Points (1) and (2) have already been considered. Point (3) deserves some further consideration. For pupils who may become mathematical specialists or who may have opportunity to employ mathematical facts, principles, and processes extensively in advanced work, systematic and logically organized courses in algebra, geometry, and other higher mathematics, are justified on the basis of their direct values. For other pupils no such justi- fication can be found. On the other hand, there are certain mathematical facts, principles, and processes, involved in those subjects, which are of sufficiently common applica- tion in the affairs of life to warrant their acquirement on the part of many if not most individuals. Here are to be con- sidered elements classified by Yocum: 2 (1) All mathematical material specifically useful to those not specialists, that is sufficiently many-sided and recurring in its applications or essential in some unique usefulness, to be made definite and certain for all. . . . 1 Young, J. W. A., op. cit., p. 13. 2 Yocum, A. D., "Mathematics as a Means to Culture and Discipline," The Mathematics Teacher, vol. vi, pp. 136-37. 492 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION (2) All mathematical material sufficiently useful to those not specialists which, while not sufficiently many-sided and recurring to be made certain for all, is many-sided and recurring enough and strong enough in its sensational or emotional appeal to be presented for such individual comprehension and retention as may result. Recognition of the importance of some mathematical facts, principles, and processes for the majority of individ- uals, on the basis of direct and specific values, would justify the organization of a course in mathematics to meet the needs common to most individuals. Such a course would include those, and only those, mathematical facts, principles, and processes which may reasonably be expected to have practical applications in the lives of most people, involving elements of arithmetic, algebra, geometry, and such other mathematics as may be appropriate. Some such course of "composite" or "combined" mathematics might well find its place in the junior high school where it would serve not only to provide useful mathematical knowledges to those who will leave school early and to those who will not further study mathematics, but would also serve as a valuable prog- nostic factor for those who would later in the senior high school undertake the systematic study of algebra, geometry, or other higher mathematics. Such further mathematical knowledges as may be appropriate to industrial or other vocational courses should be provided in the vocational courses themselves in direct connection with their vocational applications. 213. Indirect values claimed : number and space concepts. Among claims sometimes made for the study of mathemat- ics is the claim that it develops number and space concepts which are fundamental elements in mental life. Thus the National Committee of Fifteen states: l 1 National Committee of Fifteen, Final Report on Geometry Syllabus, The Mathematics Teacher, vol. v, p. 44. THE PLACE OF MATHEMATICS 493 The study of geometry leads also to an appreciation of the dependence of one geometric magnitude on another, in other words to the tangible concept of functionality. The study of geometry cultivates space intuition and an appre- ciation of and control over forms existing in the material world, which can be secured from no other topic in the high school cur- riculum. Likewise the study of algebra has frequently been urged as a means of extending the concept of number relations to desirable limits beyond the concrete field of arithmetic. Beyond doubt number and space concepts play an important part in the interpretation of all quantitative phenomena. It would be difficult to say, however, whether additions to such concepts as arithmetic has developed are important enough for the majority of individuals to justify any extensive study of algebra or geometry. None but an a-priori or empirical answer can be given to this question. Closely related to the development of number and space relations is the development of "the language of mathe- matics." Thus Karpinski: l Equally important is the fact that like the mother-tongue the language of mathematics is employed in the daily life of the child; to formulate this in the language of the psychologist there is a related body of apperceptive material already present in the child consciousness. The literature of almost all fields of science (in the broad- est sense of that term) is replete with " mathematical lan- guage," and the " general reader " should have some un- derstanding of it. Again, however, research is necessary to determine how far supra-arithmetical study is necessary for the development of " mathematical language " valuable for the average individual. None but empirical estimates are at present possible. 1 Karpinski, L. C., op. tit., p. 133. 494 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION 2 14. Mathematics and the transfer of improved efficiency. From the time of its introduction into the program of the secondary school the study of mathematics has been justified by its advocates to a considerable extent on the basis of its values as a means of " mental discipline." With the growing realization of the limitations of its direct values and their contingent character greater and greater emphasis has been placed on the disciplinary values of secondary-school mathe- matics. Thus Schultze : l Mathematics is primarily taught on account of the mental train- ing it affords and only secondarily on account of the knowledge of facts it imparts. Thus also Smith : 2 Here, then, is the dominating value of geometry, its value as an exercise in logic, as a means of mental training, as a discipline in the habits of neatness, order, diligence, and above all, of honesty. Likewise Young: 3 But the facts of mathematics, important and valuable as they are, are not the strongest justification for the study of the subject by all pupils. Still more important than the subject matter of mathematics is the fact that it exemplifies most typically, clearly, and simply certain modes of thought which are of the utmost importance to every one. Since mathematics is a preferential if not a required study in most secondary schools, and since such general study of mathematics cannot be justified on the basis of direct values alone, it is clear that the problem of the possibility, method, and amount of the transfer or spread to non-mathematical fields of improved efficiency gained in and through the study 1 Schultze, A., The Teaching of Mathematics in the Secondary School, p. 29. 2 Smith, D. E., The Teaching of Elementary Mathematics, p. 239. 1 Young, J. W. A., The Teaching of Mathematics in the Elementary and the Secondary School, p. 17. THE PLACE OF MATHEMATICS 495 of mathematics is by far the most important problem to be considered in connection with the values of the study of secondary-school mathematics. No theory can justify the prescription of mathematics or any other study for all pu- pils in the secondary school. On the other hand, if exten- sive transfer values can be established for that subject, its position as a leading study in the secondary school can be justified. If transfer values are lacking or insignificant, mathematics must cease to occupy a prominent position in most curriculums. It cannot be doubted that the study of mathematics affords abundant opportunity for the exercise of numerous valuable mental traits, that its subject-matter is peculiarly adapted to the development of those traits as far as they may be applied to mathematical content, and that the ma- terials of mathematics lend themselves readily to manipula- tion for whatever purpose desired. The important question is, of course: Can those traits be generalized, divorced from mathematical content, and utilized in their improved effi- ciency for other content and other situations in life? Before attempting to answer that question, it is well to consider just what traits are commonly claimed by propo- nents of mathematical study in the secondary school to afford such improved efficiency. Most prominent among those traits are those involved in reflective thinking (reasoning).1 This claim has been considered specifically in Chapter XI and little more can be said here. It may, however, be re- peated (a) that such transfer is possible; (6) that the method of transfer depends on the ordinary laws of dissociation; (c) that the extent of such transfer depends on the degree in which materials are organized and presented so as to make conditions favorable for dissociation. It may further be repeated that whatever transfer is possible it cannot be 1 Cf. Schultze, A., op. oil., pp. 18-26; Young, J. W. A., op. cit., pp. 17 /- 496 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION expected to operate automatically in all cases but should be aimed at definitely. The amount of actual transfer is conditioned both by the character of subject matter and also by the methods employed. In addition to the claim made for the transfer of ability in reasoning the many claims commonly made for transfer values include the following: i (a) development of the "power of concentration"; (6) development of the "con- structive imagination"; (c) growth of "mental self-reli- ance"; (d) development of "character"; (e) capacity for "generalizing conceptions"; (/) cultivation of "reverence for the truth"; (gr) cultivating the "habit of self-scrutiny," etc. That these desirable mental traits may be exercised in the study of mathematics is undisputed. The central prob- lem, however, here as elsewhere, is the problem of their transferability, and the validity of the claims that mathe- matics may foster such general traits must be tested by theories of the method and extent of transfer in general. Here in particular, however, one must be on guard against the conception that separate "faculties" or "powers" of concentration, attention, constructive imagination, etc., exist. For the rest the discussion of the general problem of transfer in Chapter XI must here suffice. 215. Characteristics claimed to favor transfer values. The first condition for the successful transfer of improved efficiency is that the trait which it is desired to transfer be developed in connection with the content of the training study. In the general discussion of transfer values it was suggested that subjects of study differ in the degree in which favorable conditions are afforded for the exercise of the desired trait and that the transfer of improved efficiency is primarily conditioned by the character of the original train- ing material. Secondary-school studies differ in the extent 1 Cf. Schultze, A., op. cit.,pp. 26-27; Young, J. W. A., op. cit., pp. 41 /. THE PLACE OF MATHEMATICS 497 to which desirable mental traits may be exercised, in the fitness of the materials for purposes of manipulation in teaching, and in the character of the materials as already organized for teaching. In these three respects mathematics possesses advantages over many subjects of study. The materials of mathematics, ranging all the way from the sim- plest to the most complex, may be manipulated almost at will, thus permitting the arrangement of conditions most favorable to dissociation. The organization of materials in the field of mathematics has been determined from the start for purposes of teaching. With regard to the ready manipulation of materials for the purpose of fostering trans- fer values mathematics shares prominence with the language studies. With regard to the certainty and accuracy of its data it supersedes all other subjects. With regard to the opportunity which it affords for the exercise of valuable mental traits most desirable to transfer, if possible, it is equaled by few and surpassed by none of the other subjects in the program of the secondary school. 216. Rugg's experiment. The majority of investigations designed to determine elements of transfer have dealt with memory or sense and perceptual factors and for the most part under laboratory rather than school conditions. Among the most noteworthy transfer investigations con- cerned directly with subjects of study and conducted under school (college) conditions is that of Rugg, who attempted to determine the transfer effect of the study of descriptive geometry by college students. The limitations of space per- mit here only the Summary of Conclusions arrived at by Rugg: l The study of descriptive geometry (under ordinary classroom conditions throughout a semester of fifteen weeks) in which such 1 Rugg, H. O., The Experimental Determination of Mental Discipline in School Studies, pp. 114-15, 6. Quoted with the permission of the pub- lishers, Warwick and York. 498 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION natural and not undue consideration is given to practice in geo- metrical visualization as is necessary for the solution of descriptive geometry problems operates: — (1) Substantially to increase the students' ability in solving problems requiring the mental manipulation of a geometricaf nature, the content of which are distinctly different from the visua content of descriptive geometry itself. (2) Substantially to increase the students' ability in solving problems requiring the mental manipulation of spacial elements of a slightly geometrical character, i.e., problems utilizing the fun- damental elements of geometry (the point, line, and plane), but apart from a geometrical setting, and in such form as to offer no geometrical aids in solution. (3) Substantially to increase the students' ability in solving problems requiring mental manipulation of spacial elements of a completely non-geometrical nature, i.e., problems in which the straight line and plane do not appear in any way whatsoever. (4) The training effect of such study in descriptive geometry operates more efficiently hi those problems whose visual content more closely resembles that of the training course itself, i.e., in those problems whose imagery content is composed of combina- tions of points, lines, and planes, and in which the continuity of the manipulating movements approaches the continuity of those in the training course. The possibility of one disciplinary outcome of a specific school subject, i.e., the ability in the mental manipulation of special ele- ments, has been established in this investigation. The experi- menter believes that, hi general, disciplinary outcomes of school studies will be found hi the above-listed agencies of transfer, i.e., the development of concepts of method in analyzing 'problem' situations and organizing methods of procedure, the habitualizing of reaction to specific cues, the development of attitudes of orien- tation and familiarity with the type of situation to be met, and the extension of the range of attention. The numerous difficulties which surround the investigator in such a study as that conducted by Rugg prevent us from accepting the conclusions reached otherwise than as sugges- tive and tentative. Many more investigations in this field must be made before any assured judgment can be reached. THE PLACE OF MATHEMATICS 499 217. Criticism of mathematics as now organized. In the preceding discussion several points have been raised which afford some basis for criticism of the economy of the study of mathematics as at present organized in the American secondary school. (1) Previously, attention was called to the common fal- lacy of assuming values for a whole subject on the basis of values which are valid for parts only of that subject. This fallacy is found in the tendency to assign universal values to secondary-school mathematics on the basis of values which are valid for elementary phases of the field (arith- metical material) only. The resultant emphasis on direct values of the study of algebra and geometry is unjustified. (2) Current teaching of secondary-school mathematics commonly errs in expecting to take place too much transfer of mental traits exercised in the study to non-mathematical fields. It also errs in expecting such transfer as may be hoped for to take place automatically and without proper provision for fostering dissociation. Teachers of mathemat- ics must recognize that there are no general "faculties " such as concentration, attention, memory, reasoning, and the like, which can be developed independently of specific con- tent. The most that can be hoped for is that valuable meth- ods of mental activity may be transferred, that ideals of accuracy, standards of certainty, and the like, may be so established that they will be generalized from a type form and dissociated from mathematical content. Further, they must realize that, while a limited amount of transfer can be secured under almost any conditions, the desired amount of transfer can be secured only when materials and methods of teaching are deliberately adapted to that end and conditions fostering extensive transfer are provided. It is futile and criminal to establish the study of secondary-school mathe- matics on the basis of extensive transfer values and then to 500 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION fail to meet the conditions necessary if any extensive amount of transfer is to be accomplisLed. (3) Attempts to emphasize applied mathematics do not meet the conditions favorable to extensive transfer. Valu- able though applied mathematics is and important though " real " problems may be, their function is to attain direct values and not to foster conditions favorable for transfer. It is a tenable thesis that for most pupils pure mathematics is superior to applied mathematics because of its greater transfer values. Thus Colvin : * We may then conclude that pure science is of greater disciplin- ary value, because (1) through the facts which it presents, ideals of procedure and of truth may be developed which function in a wider human experience, greatly to the uplift of the race; (2) the content and method of pure science is such that it has a broader field of application than has applied science, and can function as an identical or similar element in more situations than can applied science; (3) the emotion which the pure seeking after truth arouses is higher and less likely to be deadened by other emotions than are the ideals of economic improvement and social betterment, which are the ideals of applied science. It is to be noted here that applied forms of mathematics have their place, and an important place in the program of studies, but that importance attaches to the study of applied mathematics on the- basis of its direct values for special groups of pupils. (4) The fact that justification can be found for the teach- ing of secondary-school mathematics on the basis of its indirect values and the fact that those values are not limited to special curriculum groups of pupils do not justify any assumption that all pupils should study algebra and geome- try. The common requirement of the study of algebra and geometry on the part of all pupils is opposed to the concep- 1 Colvin, S. S., The Learning Process, pp. 249-50 et circ. Quoted with the permission of the publishers, The Macmillan Company. THE PLACE OF MATHEMATICS 501 tion that individual differences in capacities, interests, and future activities must be recognized. This is true whether we accept or reject indirect values. (5) From whatever angle we approach the problem of the organization of mathematics the present method of isolating arithmetic, algebra, and geometry, and other departments of mathematics raises serious questions. If we approach the problem from the viewpoint of the nature of mathematics as a science, we face the fact that mathematical thought is a complex unit and that the various phases are so interwoven that separation is a tour de force for supposed educational advantage. If we approach it from the viewpoint of the applications of mathematics, we face at once the fact that the various phases are or may be so interrelated that a single application may involve at the same time arithmetic, algebra, and geometry. If we approach the problem from the viewpoint of direct values, we find that the study of arithme- tic, algebra, and geometry separately, in sequence, and as completely organized sciences is wasteful of time and energy and little suited to the effective application of direct values. Finally, if we approach the problem from the viewpoint of indirect values, we find that the separation in learning of the various phases of the science is one of the surest ways to lessen conditions favorable for transfer. Current criticism is sound in its insistence on a closer correlation of the depart- ments of mathematics in the schools. It is not so sound when it bases that correlation on direct and applied values alone. (6) In common with other studies in the secondary school mathematics suffers from its isolation. One of the surest ' ways in which transfer values may be materialized from the study of mathematics is to see that methods, ideals, and the like, exemplified in its study may also be exemplified in sub- jects dealing with content material of a different sort and so recognized by the pupil. Any number of examples afforded 502 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION must be of relatively little value unless application is made in the fields where the application is desired. Until the teacher of mathematics fully recognizes the fact that the pupil, not the subject, is the unit to be considered and that the mathematical experiences of the pupil constitute but a small part of his total experiences, much of the value of the study of mathematics must be lost. No education can be successful unless the experiences of the individual are uni- fied. The correlation of the work in mathematics with the work in other subjects and with experiences outside the school must be effected if the values of mathematics itself are to be developed. 218. The order and position of mathematical studies. The Committee of Ten recommended the earlier introduc- tion of algebra and geometry, suggesting that certain ele- ments of those subjects be introduced into the work of the later grades of the elementary school. With the develop- ment of plans for the reorganization of the school system, particularly in connection with the junior-senior high-school plan, emphasis has been placed on the earlier introduction of some mathematics now commonly restricted to the later grades. Reasons for this change are the following: (1) the study of arithmetic is prolonged beyond desirable bounds in the American schools; (2) a closer correlation between arithmetic, algebra, and geometry is desirable; (3) many boys and girls now leave school before they come into con- tact with any forms of algebra and geometry; (4) those who continue their education through the high school are delayed in the acquirement of a valuable tool; (5) at present the only opportunity to gain any knowledge of algebra or geometry is that afforded through the study of either in the form of a complete and logically organized science; (6) the change from the familiar field of arithmetic to the higher mathe- matics is too abrupt. THE PLACE OF MATHEMATICS 503 To ameliorate conditions implied in the reasons given for the earlier introduction of algebra and geometry it has been suggested that a course or courses in " composite " or " com- bined " mathematics be provided in the junior high school and that logically organized courses in algebra, geometry, and other higher mathematics be reserved for the senior high school. The course in " composite " mathematics in the junior high school would then be organized so as to include those elements of arithmetic, algebra, and geometry which may be considered as of reasonably direct value to the aver- age individual. Not only would such a course provide a diagnostic or prognostic element for later mathematical study and afford instruction in mathematical elements most useful directly to the average person, but it would also pro- vide whatever elements of number and space concepts or of " mathematical language " may legitimately be expected to result from some contact with algebra and geometry. In the senior high school provision could then be made for the systematic study of algebra, geometry, and other mathe- matics by those mathematically inclined and mathematically capable. PROBLEMS FOR FURTHER CONSIDERATION 1. Compare the organization of mathematical study in the American schools, in Prussian higher schools, and in the French lycie. 2. Examine elementary textbooks in physics and chemistry to ascertain the mathematical facts, principles, and processes necessary for ele- mentary study in those fields. Do the same for more advanced study in those fields. 3. What specific mathematical abilities are required of the machinist, electrician, and similar artisans? 4. What specific mathematical abilities are required of the civil engineer? — of the mechanical engineer? — of the mining engineer? 6. Make a list of the supra-arithmetical facts, principles, and processes of mathematics that appear to be sufficiently applicable to the ordinary affairs of life to warrant their inclusion in a course for average pupils on the basis of their direct and practical values. 504 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION 6. Examine any textbook in geometry and classify the materials presented accordingly as (a) they deal with matters ordinarily accepted as valid on the basis of general experience; (6) they deal with facts, principles, or processes valuable for their application in science or occupations' (c) they deal with facts, principles, or processes themselves not im portant but forming the basis of important facts, principles, or processes. 7. What are the arguments for and against the requirement of the study of algebra on the part of all pupils? — geometry? 8. Trace the historical development of the study of mathematics in the American secondary school. 9. Make a study of college admission requirements in mathematics. 10. What are the arguments for and against the study of algebra by girls? — geometry? 11. Determine the correlation between ability to perform the formal oper- ations in algebra and ability to perform applied problems. 12. Determine the correlation between ability to handle the propositions of geometry and ability to handle "originals." 13. Determine the correlation of ability in arithmetic and ability in alge- bra; between arithmetic and geometry; between algebra and geometry. 14. Determine the correlation between accuracy in handling algebra and accuracy in copying a page of printed English. SELECTED REFERENCES Brown, J. C., and others, Curricula in Mathematics, Bureau of Education Bulletin (1914), no. 45. Committee of Ten, Report on Secondary School Studies, pp. 104-16 (Bureau of Education edition). Committee on Entrance Requirements in Mathematics, National Educa- tion Association, Proceedings (1903), pp. 481 jf. Committee on Secondary Mathematics, Report of Commission on the Reor- ganization of Secondary Education, Bureau of Education Bulletin. Evans, G. W., The Teaching of High-School Mathematics. International Commission on the Teaching of Mathematics, Mathematics in the Public and Private Secondary Schools of the United States, Bureau of Education Bulletin (1911), no. 16. Judd, C. H., The Psychology of High-School Subjects, chaps, n-vr. Moore, E. C., "Does the Study of Mathematics Train the Mind Specifi- cally or Universally?" School and Society, vol. vi, pp. 481-91. National Committee of Fifteen on Geometry Syllabus, The Mathematics Teacher, vol. v, no. 2 (December, 1912). New England Association of Teachers of Mathematics, Report of Com- mittee on Secondary School Mathematics, The Mathematics Teacher, vol. vm, pp. 191-218. THE PLACE OF MATHEMATICS 505 Rugg, H. O., The Experimented Determination of Mental Discipline in Softool Studies. Schorling, R., Kahler, F. A., and Miller, O. M., "The Place of Mathe- matics in the High School," School Science and Mathematics, October, 1916. Schultze, A., The Teaching of Mathematics in Secondary Schools, pp. 15-29. Smith, D. E., The Teaching of Elementary Mathematics, especially chaps, vii and x. Smith, D. E., The Teaching of Geometry, especially chaps, i-n. Snedden, D., Problems of Secondary Education, chap. xvm. Yocum, A. D., "Mathematics as a Means to Culture and Discipline," The Mathematics Teacher, vol. vi, pp. 135-57. Young, J. W. A., The Teaching of Mathematics, chap. H. Extended bibliography: Bibliography of the Teaching of Mathematics (1900" 12), Bureau of Education Bulletin (1912), no. 29. CHAPTER XV THE PLACE OF THE NATURAL SCIENCES IN THE PROGRAM OF STUDIES 219. Historical development. Though some beginnings were made in the study of the natural sciences in the second- ary school through the sense-realism movement of the seven- teenth century, no appreciable study of natural science found a place in the secondary school until the latter part of the eighteenth century, or even until the beginning of the nineteenth century. Its real beginning was found in the development of the realschule and academy as a part of the expansion of the curriculum of the secondary school which characterized those movements. In America no natural science was found in the colonial grammar school. From the inception of the academy movement, however, the natural sciences found an increasingly important place in the second- ary school. By the beginning of the high-school movement the time was ripe for the introduction of natural science into the program of the public secondary school. In the first high school established (the Boston English Classical School, opened in 1821) "natural philosophy (physics), including astronomy" was required of all pupils in the last year of the course. By the regulations of 1823- 24 natural philosophy was required in the second year of the course in that school and " a course of experimental lectures on the various branches of natural philosophy " in the last year. In addition Blair's Elements of Arts and Sciences was prescribed for the first year of the course. In the Girls' High School of Boston (established in 1826) natural philosophy was a prescribed study in the second year of the course, THE PLACE OF THE NATURAL SCIENCES 507 chemistry in the third year, and botany was made an elective study. No natural-science study was required by law in a public high school until the prescription by the law of 1857 in Massachusetts. By this law high schools in that State were required to give instruction in natural philosophy, chemistry, and botany. In addition all high schools in towns of four thousand inhabitants or over were required by that law to provide instruction in astronomy and geology. Such provisions remained in the statutes of Massachusetts until 1898 when all natural-science subjects were made permis- sive. Interest in the study of the natural sciences developed faster than the public high schools. Thus in 1840 (when there were less than eighteen high schools in the State) 170 towns in Massachusetts claimed to provide instruction in natural philosophy, 58 to provide instruction in astronomy, and 57 to provide instruction in chemistry. The entrance of natural sciences into the program of studies of the public secondary school was in answer to the interest in and the development of the natural sciences dur- ing the first half of the nineteenth century. It must be noted, however, that they were for the most part taught as informational subjects and with little reference to their logical organization as sciences in the technical sense of that term. During the early period laboratory work was all but unknown and little applied work was done except in experiments by the teacher. With the possible exception of requirements for certain courses in such colleges as the Lawrence Scientific School at Harvard, the earliest recognition of a natural science for college entrance was that of physical geography at Harvard and Michigan in 1870. Natural philosophy was first recognized for college entrance at Syracuse University in 1873 and in 1876 entrance examinations were conducted at Harvard in elementary botany, the rudiments of physics, chemistry, and descriptive astronomy. Laboratory work 508 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION as a part of the study of natural science accepted for admis- sion to college was first inaugurated at Harvard in 1887. The study of the natural sciences during the second half of the nineteenth century spread to almost all fields, so that, during the last quarter of the century, numerous natural- science subjects were found in different high schools and practices were widely variable. Hence, in 1892-93 the Com- mittee of Ten attempted to organize and standardize the secondary-school work in the natural sciences. For the four years of high-school work in the natural sciences it sug- gested the following program. TABLE CXXX* Number of periods per week and proportion of time recommended Subject Grade English course Latin scientific course Modern language course Classical course Pe- Per Pe- Per Pe- Per Pe- Per riods cent riods cent riods cent riods cent per of per of per of ptr of week time week time week time week time Physical geography. I II 3 3 15.0 15.0 3 3 15.0 15.0 3 3 15.0 15.0 3 3 15.0 15.0 Botany or zoology . . II III) 3 ( 1.5 15.0 7.5 3 1.5 15.0 7.5 3 1.5 15.0 7.5 0 0 0.0 0.0 IIU {l.fi 7.5 1.5 7.6 1.5 7.5 0 0.0 IV 3 15.0 3 15.0 3 15.0 3 15.0 Geology or physiog- IV) ( 1.5 7.5 1.5 7.5 1.5 7.5 0 0.0 Anatomy, physiol- ogy, hygiene IV) (1.8 7.5 1.5 7.5 1.5 7.5 0 0.0 Total natural science I-IV 18 22.5 18 22.5 18 22.5 9 H.3 * Committee of Ten, Report on Secondary School Studies, pp. 46—17 (Bureau of Education edition). Compilation and arrangement by the author. The recommendation of the Committee accomplished much to organize the work in the natural sciences in the secondary school: (1) it tended to standardize the sciences THE PLACE OF THE NATURAL SCIENCES 509 to be studied; (2) it tended to standardize the order in which the sciences should be studied; (3) it gave great impetus to the study of the natural sciences as sciences with emphasis on laboratory work; (4) it emphasized the study of some natural science by every pupil. Some results of the recom- mendations of that committee, however, were not so satis- factory: (1) the committee failed to arrange the work so as to meet the needs of pupils who left school before the close of the course; (2) its recommendations tended to organize the study of the natural sciences in terms of the subjects rather than in terms of the capacities of the pupils and their later needs; (3) it supported the study of several natural sciences which were of questionable value (in a relative sense) in the secondary school and which in later develop- ment were discarded, at least as separate subjects of study, e.g., astronomy, geology, meteorology; (4) it failed to recog- nize the need of relating the study of the natural sciences more directly to life, especially with reference to vocations. The status of the study of natural sciences from 1890 to 1915 may be noted from the figures presented in Table CXIX and from its accompanying graph illustrating the trend of the secondary school program during those years. From those figures it may be seen that the study of the natural sciences has in some cases noticeably declined within the past quarter-century. It must be remembered, however, that applied forms of the natural sciences, not reported in the table referred to, have markedly increased within that period, e.g., agriculture, general science, etc., thus offsetting largely the decline (real or apparent) in the study of the natural sciences. On the whole, three periods in the development of the study of the natural science in the secondary school are to be distinguished. During the first period (about 1800 to 1870) the natural sciences were studied and organized largely as 510 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION informational courses. During the second period (about 1870 to 1900) the tendency was to organize the study of the natural sciences according to the demands of pure science. The third period (about 1900 to the present) has been char- acterized by attempts to organize the study of natural sciences in part according to their applications. This move- ment, however, is as yet in its formative stage. 220. Present status. According to the latest returns available (1914-15) the natural sciences are studied in secondary schools to the extent indicated in the following table. TABLE CXXXI. PUPILS ENGAGED IN NATURAL-SCIENCE STUDIES 1914-15* Subjects Public schools Private schools Att schools Physical geog- raphy . . 169,911 165,854 110,541 106,520 86,031 80,403 37,456 5,558 3,224 14.58% 14.23 9.48 9.14 7.38 6.90 3.21 .48 .28 19,318 18,572 17,802 11,673 12,485 4,936 4,437 2,032 2,543 15.37% 14.78 14.16 9.29 9.93 3.93 3.53 1.62 2.02 189,229 184,426 128,343 118,193 98,516 85,339 41,893 7,590 5,767 14.66% 14.28 9.94 9.15 7.63 6.61 3.24 .59 .45 Physics Physiology Botany Chemistry General biology . Zoology. . . Geology Astronomy * Report of the United States Commissioner of Education (1916), vol. n, pp. 487-89. In the interpretation of these figures it may be noted: (1) that certain sciences once popular (astronomy and geol- ogy) have almost disappeared from the programs of the public secondary schools; (2) that the relatively large num- ber of pupils engaged in the study of physical geography is in part explained by the fact that it is commonly taught in the first year of the high school where about forty per cent of all pupils are enrolled; (3) that botany, zoology, and physiology are frequently combined in one course of " biol- ogy," a fact which in part explains the relatively large num- bers of pupils enrolled in those studies; (4) that the relatively large enrollment in physiology is in part explained by the fact that its study is a common form of legal prescription demanded by "temperance" reformers and its teaching or popularity is frequently more apparent than real; (5) general science courses and special forms of applied-science courses are not reported. An increasingly large number of pupils is being enrolled in courses in " general science," agricultural science, domestic science, etc. In so far as there may properly be said to be a usual course covering the four years of high-school work in the natural sciences it appears to be as follows : — First year: Physical geography or general science; Second year: Biology, or biological sciences of some sort; Third year: Physics; Fourth year: Chemistry. Rarely more than one unit of science is required of all pupils and the proportion of pupils who study natural sci- ence for four full years is almost negligible. TABLE CXXXII * Entire course VI-0 I Last four years U 11-01 Total periods per week Per cent of time Total periods per week Per cent of time Gymnasium 18 29 36 5.9 9.4 11.7 8 19 24 5.7 13.3 16.8 Realgvmnasium Oberrealschule * Cf. Tables LXXXIV-LXXXVII. PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION In Prussia the study of natural science is required of all pupils throughout the entire course of the higher schools for boys. The amount of time devoted to such study is indi- cated in Table CXXXII. During the earlier years are studied the biological sciences, corresponding roughly tc "nature study." During the latter grades mineralogy, physics, and chemistry are studied. In French secondary schools for boys are taught zoology, botany, geology, physics, chemistry, cosmography, anatomy and physiology, paleontology, hygiene. Not all pupils, however, study all those subjects. The general order of natural-science studies in the French secondary schools for boys may be seen from the following table. TABLE CXXXJII. PERIODS PER WEEK DEVOTED TO NATURAL SCIENCE IN THE FRENCH SECONDARY SCHOOLS FOR BOYS * First cycle Second cycle Grades VI V IV III II I P-M rA 0 0 , f A 7. 5-9 (A 1 i 1 0 ) B 0 0 Divisions . . . J > < C 4.5 5 IB 2 i 2.5 2.5) D 4.5 5 [B7.5-9 * Cf. Table CIV. From this table it may be seen that it is possible for many boys to pass through the secondary school in France without any serious study of natural science, since the science offered in the first cycle is largely an informational subject without laboratory work. On the other hand, it is possible for boys to receive intensive instruction in natural science in the second cycle. 221. Values claimed for the natural sciences. Before considering the values claimed for the various natural sci- THE PLACE OF THE NATUEAL SCIENCES 513 ences as subjects of study in the secondary-school program it is well to consider some of the claims made for the study of, natural science in general. Probably the most thorough- going claims that have ever been made for the values of the study of the natural sciences are those of Spencer : — Thus to the question with which we set out — What knowledge is of most worth? — the uniform reply is — Science. This is the verdict on all the counts. For direct self-preservation, or the maintenance of life and health, the all-important knowledge is — Science. For that indirect self-preservation which we call gain- ing a livelihood, the knowledge of greatest value is — Science. For the due discharge of parental functions, the proper guidance is to be found only in — Science. For that interpretation of na- tional life, past and present, without which the citizen cannot rightly regulate his conduct, the indispensable key is — Science. Alike for the most perfect production and highest enjoyment of art in all its forms, the needful preparation is still — Science. And for purposes of discipline — intellectual, moral, religious — the most efficient study is, once more — Science. The question which at first seemed so perplexed, has become, in the course of our in- quiry, comparatively simple. We have not to estimate the degrees of importance of different orders of human activity, and different studies as severally fitting us for them ; since we find that the study of science, in its most comprehensive meaning, is the best prepa- ration for all these orders of activity.1 According to Spencer not only is science best fitted for an education which is to give a knowledge of facts, but it is also best fitted to develop the mental " faculties " • — a con- clusion which he reaches by a most naive course of reasoning. Having found what is best for the one end, we have by implica- tion found what is best for the other. We may be quite sure that the acquirement of those acts which are most useful for regulating conduct, involves a mental exercise best fitted for strengthening the faculties. It would be utterly contrary to the economy of Nature, if one kind of culture were needed for the gaining of information and another kind were needed as a mental gymnastic.2 1 Spencer, H., Education, chap, i, pp. 89-90. 2 Ibid., p. 79. 514 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION Yet one thing more must be added to Spencer's worship of "Science": Not only for intellectual discipline is Science the best; but also for moral discipline. The discipline of Science is superior to that of our ordinary edu- cation because of the religious culture that it gives. It is religious, too, inasmuch as it generates a profound respect for, and an im- plicit faith in, those uniform laws which underlie all things. By accumulating experiences the man of science acquires a thorough belief in the unchanging relations of phenomena — in the inevit- able connection between cause and consequence — in the necessity of good or evil results.1 These claims set up by Spencer for the values of the study of the natural sciences are of particular interest because they embody almost all the fallacies commonly employed by over-enthusiastic proponents of the natural sciences. Those fallacies deserve some special consideration.2 (1) Spencer employs the term "science" in at least three different senses which he does not always take the trouble to distinguish. At times he uses the term in a gen- eric sense equivalent to all organized knowledge or " scien- tific method"; at times he uses the term with reference to the natural sciences in general; at times he employs the term referring to a special science, natural, social, or psy- chological. This confusion (at least for the reader) arises from the fact that for Spencer the social sciences are bio- logical and psychological, and that psychology is but one phase of biology. Hence, without warning he skips lightly from the use of the term in one sense to its use in another. The "word-jingle" fallacy is thus involved. (2) At many points Spencer's arguments involve a rather thorough-going theory of faculty psychology. 1 Spencer, H., Education, pp. 84, 85, 87. 2 Cf . the general discussion of fallacies frequently involved in the analysis of direct values, section 165. THE PLACE OF THE NATURAL SCIENCES 515 (3) Attention has frequently been called to the fact that Spencer failed to distinguish between subject matter of great importance to the race and to civilization through a limited number of individual specialists and subject-matter valuable directly for all individuals — a failure to distin- guish between values of use, consumption, or appreciation, and values of technical knowledge, production, or accom- plishment. 222. Spencer's fallacies perpetuated. The weaknesses of Spencer's claims have been pointed out repeatedly and the past decade or two has seen more careful analysis of the values of the natural sciences as subjects of study in the secondary school. Nevertheless writers of recent date have perpetuated certain of his fallacies. For example, the failure to distinguish between the need of scientific knowledges and skills on the part of some and the need of those knowledges and skills on the part of all is a constant error. Thus Mills : * What is Chemistry? In what way does chemistry touch the life of the average man? Will a knowledge of chemistry prove of bene- fit to the ordinary laborer, or farmer, or mechanic, or business man? Such questions have often been asked, and my almost invariable reply to the questioner is, "Name anything about you with which chemistry has nothing to do." It makes little difference as to the reply — cloth, paper, glass, wood, brick, the body itself, the food that we eat, and the earth upon which we walk — chemistry teaches of the constitution of these bodies, of the way in which they are made. Here values of use, consumption, and appreciation must be contrasted sharply with values of accomplishment, produc- tion, and technical knowledge. The former are practically universal: the latter are limited and contingent. A second fallacy is even more subtle and cannot be illus- 1 Mills, J. E., p. 183 of Johnston, C. H. (Editor), High-School Education, Quoted with the permission of the publishers, Charles Scribner's Sons. 516 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION trated by any single quotation. It is found in the tendency by some writers to establish certain relatively universal values in connection with a specific natural science, e.g., physiology, transfer those values to science in the generic sense, and finally to extend those values to other sciences with which they are but indirectly if at all connected. Thus general values established in connection with biological sciences are frequently transferred to material sciences. A somewhat similar fallacy is involved when certain uni- versal values which may be established for specific parts of a science are extended to cover the entire field of that science as organized into a logical whole. The third important fallacy commonly involved in claims for the values of the study of natural science is found in dependence to an unjustifiable extent on a theory of trans- fer, frequently involving an obsolete theory of faculty psychology. In this respect the scientist has sinned even more than the others against whom he has so frequently charged error. So many direct and specifically practical values can be shown for the natural sciences that one would expect to find the advocates of the study of natural science sedulously avoiding the pitfalls which have enticed the advo- cates of subjects of less practical application. However, such is not the case. Thus of biology, which of all the sci- ence subjects least requires support from a theory of trans- fer values, Pearse says: For those who still question the value of biology, it is easy to find answers. From the point of view of mental training, the proper study of living things offers an excellent field for (1) gathering first- hand knowledge, (2) gaining clear ideas, (3) making concrete analyses, (4) using the mind for abstraction and discrimination, (5) seeing resemblances, (6) forming general concepts, and (7) giv- ing logical definitions. . . . Biology has a special function in training, in that it has for its subject-matter living organisms whose varying and uncertain THE PLACE OF THE NATURAL SCIENCES 517 behavior train the judgment of youth better to understand the behavior of men. It certainly exercises the judgment in a different way than do the exact sciences of physics and chemistry.1 And Eliot: The student of natural science scrutinizes, touches, weighs, measures, analyzes, dissects, and watches things. By these exer- cises his powers of observation and judgment are trained, and he acquires the precious habit of observing the appearances, trans- formations, and processes of nature.2 Or Bigelow: The disciplinary value of the study of zoology, as indeed of any other science, is found in that it may contribute to the development of a scientific attitude of mind, by directing various mental proc- esses, such as those involved in scientific observing, classifying facts, exercising judgment and discrimination, and learning to appreciate demonstrated knowledge.3 These fallacies must be carefully guarded against in attempting to analyze the values of the study of natural sciences in the secondary school. 223, Preliminary analysis of the values claimed. In an analysis of the values claimed for the study of the natural sciences in the secondary school we may consider them under two general heads: (1) those values which are claimed to arise from the direct and specific use of the facts and proc- esses of the natural sciences in everyday life, in various vocations, and in the pursuit of other studies; (2) those values which are claimed to arise indirectly from the study of the natural sciences through the development of scientific concepts or generalized mental functions. Either of these groups of values claimed may again be subdivided. Thus under the head of direct and specific values may be con- 1 Pearse, A. S., p. 199 of Johnston, C. H. (Editor), High-School Education. 2 Eliot, C. W., Educational Reform, p. 110. 3 Lloyd, F. E., and Bigelow, M. A., Tlie Teaching of Biology, p. 244. 518 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION sidered : (a) the values of the study of the natural sciences as measured by the directly practical application of their facts, principles, and processes to those affairs of life which are common to all people whatever be their special activ- ities; (6) the values of the study of the natural sciences as measured by the directly practical applications of their facts, principles, and processes to special vocations or special phases of certain vocations; (c) the values of the study of the natural sciences as measured by the direct applications of their facts, principles, and processes to other studies. Under the head of indirect and general values may be con- sidered: (a) those claimed to rise from the development of scientific concepts such as natural law and the like; (6) those values claimed to arise from the transfer or spread to other fields of improved efficiency gained in and through the study of natural sciences. In the following sections will be con- sidered seriatim: (1) Direct and specific values: (a) universal "practical" values; (6) specific vocational values; (c) direct propaedeutic values. (2) Indirect and general values: (a) conceptual values; (6) general transfer values. 224. Natural science in the affairs of everyday life. The values of scientific information and skill are so readily recognized in terms of their applications to the affairs of everyday life that one is easily led into one or all of three common fallacies which were outlined at some length in Chapter XI; 1 (1) the fallacy of estimating values of the. study of natural science (especially of inorganic science) in terms of the important part played by natural science in modern life and the failure to recognize that the great con- tributions of science must come to the race through a rela- tively small number of specialists; (2) the fallacy of failing 1 Section 165. THE PLACE OF THE NATURAL SCIENCES 519 to recognize the difference between values of utilization, consumption, or appreciation and values of technical knowl- edge, accomplishment, and production; (3) the fallacy of failing to recognize that the same direct values do not attach to any science as a logically organized whole or to all parts of a single science, which properly attach to some parts of that science. The result of employing such fallacies is a failure to distinguish between universal and limited or con- tingent direct values, with a consequent tendency to over- emphasize universal values of a direct character. The dis- cussion of these fallacies in Chapter XI renders unnecessary further consideration here. When we interpret the direct values of the study of nat- ural sciences in terms of the need of their facts, principles, and processes in the activities of the average individual we find some measure of the relative values of the several natural sciences and of the relative importance of various parts of the special sciences. Thus, doubtless, interpreted in such terms, certain biological sciences (e.g., physiology and hygiene) should be assigned relatively greater direct value than certain inorganic sciences (e.g., physics), since all individuals, being biological organisms, should have some knowledge of biological facts, principles, and processes if health is to be conserved. Likewise, interpreting values in such terms we should not hesitate to recognize that certain facts, principles, and processes of physics or chemistry have far greater direct value than others. From the standpoint of direct values for most people in the affairs of ordinary life the study of natural sciences must be considered in terms of their utilization, consumption, and appreciation. Such values are practically universal but emphasize special elements only in the study of the sciences. For the natural sciences organized into logically constituted wholes no uni- versal direct values can be claimed for most people in the 520 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION ordinary affairs of life. It is, of course, recognized that for numerous affairs in which different groups of individuals actively participate the contingent values of the study of certain natural sciences are high. This, however, involves the training of special groups rather than all pupils hi the secondary school. 225. Direct values for vocations. The direct and specific applications of the facts, principles, and processes of various natural sciences to special vocations are so obvious that they require little more than mention in the present discus- sion. The extended applications of science to manufacture and agriculture within recent years have placed greater and greater emphasis on the vocational values of the study of natural science in the secondary school. Little need be said here otherwise than to note that we are dealing in this con- nection with limited values in the sense that they are to be determined with reference to special groups and with con- tingent values in the sense that they are to be estimated according to the likelihood that various scientific facts, principles, and processes will "function" in the several voca- tions which secondary-school pupils will enter. In this con- nection we must remember that the increased application of natural science to manufacture and agriculture has been paralleled by a tendency toward greater specialization of labor, so that, while the applications of natural science in those fields have grown more important and more numer- ous, a grasp of the facts, principles, and particularly the processes of natural science is demanded by laboratory specialists only. In any industry the specialists furnish the scientific knowledges and skills while the workers in general merely follow standardized directions. This is true to a far greater extent in manufacture than in agriculture where independent workers are more numerous. Even in agricul- ture, however, — where, it is to be noted, the organic sci- THE PLACE OF THE NATURAL SCIENCES 521 ences are the more important, — what is needed is largely a scientific intelligence to utilize information supplied by the specialist. 226. Propaedeutic values. Direct propaedeutic values of the study of natural science are obvious for those who are destined to pursue their scientific studies along advanced lines. This is, of course, particularly true for those who are destined to enter higher forms of technological, agricul- tural, medical, or other scientific pursuits. Such groups of pupils are relatively small though important. Here, again, the values found must be considered limited and contin- gent. 227. Conceptual values claimed. For lack of a more con- venient term the term "conceptual" is here applied to those values of the study of natural science which are claimed to arise from the development of such broad concepts as the unity of phenomenaLnature, the interrelation of natural and social phenomena, natural law, standards of naturalism and super-naturalism of reality and superstition, ideals of order and system in nature, cause and effect relations in the world of nature, biological evolution, etc. Any real understanding of modern life and thought is impossible without some under- standing of those comprehensive concepts which have devel- oped for the most part through the study of natural science. It is not to be conceived that the development and use of such concepts are solely the prerogath es of the philosopher or highly trained scientist. In science the instrument was created by which man can be freed from the bondage of superstition. The world has been freed from the shackles of necromancy, alchemy, witchcraft, astrology, animism, and numerous other errors of understanding through a knowledge and use of natural science. It requires, however, but little observation and imagination to recognize that just as serious errors enslave the thought and action of man at 522 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION the present day and that large numbers of men and women are seriously misled through superstition and appearances. The point has been stated well by De Garmo : * Let us call to witness the baseless terrors arising from erroneous belief regarding natural causes, the needless famines, diseases, and devastating pestilences that have afflicted mankind, and then the more lamentable perversion of noble human qualities themselves through blind adherence to authority, or by the injection into hu- man affairs of the devils generated by ignorance of natural law, as in witchcraft or in the Spanish inquisition, thus poisoning the mind with the ptomaines of its own diseased thinking. One must indeed be an optimist not to believe that super- stition and ignorance of natural causes play havoc in the thought and action of millions of men and women in civi- lized society in the present as in the past. 228. Transfer values claimed. Advocates of the study of natural science, as proponents of other studies in the sec- ondary school, have constantly emphasized its transfer values. In many cases it is held that by the study of natural science such assumed general powers, capacities, or faculties of the mind as observation, discrimination, accuracy, mem- ory, imagination, reasoning, may be so trained as to func- tion with improved efficiency in non-scientific fields. In so far as such claims involve (as they sometimes do) a theory of faculty psychology they must be ruled out of court at once on the ground that modern psychology recognizes no such general and independent faculties as memory, observa- tion, etc. However, the abandonment of such a theory does not mean that certain forms of efficiency developed in and through the study of natural science cannot have effect on fields of study and situations of a non-scientific character. Recent attempts to analyze the transfer values claimed for 1 De Garmo, C., Principles of Secondary Education: The Studies, p. 55. Cf. White, A. D., The Warfare of Science and Theology. THE PLACE OF THE NATURAL SCIENCES 523 the study of natural science have to some extent avoided the fallacies prominent in earlier analyses.1 The fundamental problems involved in the transfer values of the study of natural science are the same as those in- volved in the transfer values of other studies, particularly in mathematics. They have already been considered at some length in Chapter XI. The conclusions there reached were: (a) that the transfer or spread of improved efficiency is possible; (6) that the method of transfer depends on the ordinary laws of dissociation; (c) that the extent of such transfer depends on the degree in which materials are organ- ized and presented so as to make conditions favorable for dissociation. Keeping these conclusions in mind we may consider their application to the question of transfer values in the case of natural-science study. No one can question that valuable mental traits (employ- ing that term in the generic sense) are exercised and devel- oped by the study of natural science. No one can doubt that mental traits of the same generic quality are employed extensively in non-scientific situations in life. Ideals and habits of accuracy, achievement, proof, persistency, open- mindedness, honesty, and the like, are very real common factors in the field of natural science and in other fields: methods of problem solving, " scientific method," etc., are common elements exemplified in connection with data of all sorts : the same human mind with its capacity for generaliza- tion is a common element in all intellectual enterprises. The materials and means for transfer are provided in the study of natural science. Subjects of study differ widely in the degree in which they lend themselves to organization and manipulation for pur- 1 For example, Twiss, G. R., pp. 453-59 of Monroe, P. (Editor), The Principles of Secondary Education; Mann, C. R., The Teaching of Physics, pp. 171-96. 524 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION poses of fostering conditions favorable to the processes of dissociation. Among those subjects whose materials may readily be manipulated for this purpose the natural sciences occupy a prominent position along with mathematics. The degree of transfer values to be achieved through the study of natural science must depend on the organization of ma- terials and the methods employed. When a science is organ- ized and taught with emphasis on direct values alone or primarily the minimum of transfer values is to be expected. Transfer values are always potential and their achievement is not always automatic. The maximum of transfer values will be achieved when the materials are organized for that purpose and the methods of presentation purposely adapted to the development of those values. Direct values and indi- rect values cannot both be at their maximum at the same time and with the same organization of teaching materials and methods. The most important element of transfer values commonly claimed for the study of natural science comprises that methodology in intellectual enterprises which goes under the name of " scientific method." This, according to Pearson, is marked by (1) careful and accurate classification of facts and observation of their correlation and sequence; (2) the discovery of scientific laws by aid of the creative imagina- tion; (3) self-criticism and the final touchstone of equal validity for all normally constituted minds.1 The scientific method of examining facts is not peculiar to one class of phenomena and to one class of workers; it is applicable to social as well as to physical problems, and we must carefully guard ourselves against supposing that the scientific frame of mind is a peculiarity of the professional scientist. Now this frame of mind seems to me an essential of good citizenship, and of the several ways in which it can be acquired few surpass the careful study of 1 Pearson, K., The Grammar of Science, p. 37. THE PLACE OF THE NATURAL SCIENCES 525 some one branch of natural science. The insight into method and the habit of dispassionate investigation which follow from acquaint- ance with the scientific classification of even some small range of natural facts, give the mind an invaluable power of dealing with other facts as the occasion arises.1 229. The values and aims of " general science." Until recent years the only provision for science instruction in the secondary school was provision for a number of isolated unit courses in physics, chemistry, physiology, botany, and the like. Each of those courses was organized on the basis of the logical relations demanded by the subject-matter of the special science involved without reference to the psy- chological needs of the learner or the situations in which he would apply the knowledges and skills acquired in its study. Recently, however, there has developed the practice of providing a course in "general" or "elementary" science. Several considerations have led to the development of such a course. Among these the most important are the following: (1) There is need for a course in natural science which is elementary and introductory. The study of natural science in the school differs from some of the studies with which it is grouped in the secondary school in that its development in various fields has led to more or less isolated studies which have no elementary or introductory study as compared with mathematics, the language studies, or even the social stud- ies. There are elementary or introductory courses in bot- any, physical geography, physics, biology, and chemistry, but no real introductory course in natural science which may serve either to give a general view of natural phenomena or as a diagnostic factor for later scientific study. (2) The present organization of natural-science studies makes it practically impossible for the pupil to come into any contact with certain fields of science unless he remains 1 Pearson, K., The Grammar of Science, pp. 6-7. 526 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION in school throughout the course. The pupil who leaves school at the close of the elementary school as at present organized has opportunity to come into contact with such elements of nature study and physiology only as are provided in the elementary school. The pupil who leaves school before the last two years of high-school work cannot under ordinary circumstances come into any contact with physics and chem- istry. Further, the pupil who remains in school throughout the secondary course has no opportunity to study physics or chemistry except as an intensive subject. It is a case of all or nothing in any field of natural science. (3) In earlier days the natural sciences were taught in the secondary school largely as informational subjects so that the pupil was provided an opportunity to learn something concerning natural phenomena without elaborate technical work in the laboratory. Beyond doubt certain values of the study of natural sciences were greatly increased by the introduction of laboratory work. The change was not, how- ever, an unconditioned gam, as may be observed from the diminished interest in the study of physics and chemistry since instruction in those sciences was made to involve labo- ratory work by pupils in the secondary school. The informa- tional courses previously provided were very attractive to secondary-school pupils. The laboratory courses now pro- vided have proved unattractive.1 Two remedies suggest themselves, (a) A course in general science not overbur- dened by insistence on technical laboratory work may pro- vide science study for those who will not become special- ists and for some may awaken such an interest in science study as to lead to more intensive study in later science courses, (b) It is a tenable thesis that better results for the total pupil body would be secured if the courses in physics 1 Cf. Table CXIX and Snedden, D., Problems of Secondary Education. p. 231. THE PLACE OF THE NATURAL SCIENCES 527 and chemistry were so organized that laboratory work be provided for those needing that work for extended study or college admission and for those sufficiently interested in that side of science work, but also that pupils be allowed to study physics and chemistry without necessarily engaging ir laboratory work, at least to the extent at present required. (4) There is need for a course in natural science not restricted in its scope to a single field organized as a logical and exclusive unit, but touching many fields at those points where an acquaintance with the phenomena of nature is valuable directly to the individual. In a preceding section it was pointed out that the direct values of the study of the natural sciences, particularly of the inorganic sciences, as logically organized wholes are limited and contingent. While this is true of those sciences as units it does not hold true of certain facts, principles, and processes which form parts of the several sciences. Some of the facts, principles, and processes of the various natural sciences are valuable for practically all pupils directly. It is an essential principle underlying the organization of a course in general science that the inclusion and organization of the subject-matter shall be determined (a) by the demands of the learning proc- ess peculiar to pupils of the appropriate stage of develop- ment, (6) by the importance of the various facts, principles, and processes of the several sciences to the average individ- ual in the ordinary activities of life as engaged in by all. If the needs implied in the above are to be realized it is clear that the course or courses in general science should be begun rather early in the secondary school, preceded by some contact with the phenomena of nature in the element- ary school. In all probability the proper place for courses in general science is in the junior high school. In the senior high school may then follow such intensive courses in such special fields as biology, physics, and chemistry, organized 528 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDAEY EDUCATION as logical wholes. A course in general science properly organ- ized in the junior high school should lead some pupils to greater interest in the natural sciences in the senior high school. 230. The aims of natural science instruction. The aims of instruction in natural science in the secondary school should be the development of values previously outlined. In specific terms^hey may be considered in the following: (1) General science: The aims of instruction in general science are to provide opportunity for acquaintance by the pupils with the facts, principles, and processes of natural phenomena in such a way as to furnish them with some means of understanding the elementary laws of nature which are necessary for healthy, intelligent, and efficient living. At some length the guiding principles have been well stated by Snedden: l 1. The primary purpose of general science instruction for youths from twelve to sixteen years of age should be to eluci- date, to explain, and to interpret, in degree appropriate to the youth and modest demands of these learners, and by means of genuine and vivid experience, the important facts and simple principles of accessible natural phenomena and of significant and easily comprehended applications of science to human well-being. 2. Secondary purposes, which are to be definitely subordinated in teaching processes, and to be realized, if at all, only as by- products, are: (a) The intellectual grasp of underlying prin- ciples and laws; (6) the mastery, as working ideal and specific habit (as opposed to appreciation and intellectual compre- hension) of any department of scientific method; and (c) the mastery for use in a practical or vocational sense (as distin- guished from development of appreciation) of scientific knowledge or technique. 3. The scope or range of natural phenomena and cases of applied science to be included in a program of general science instruc- 1 Snedden, D., Problems of Secondary Education, pp. 255-62. THE PLACE OF THE NATURAL SCIENCES 529 tion should be great — theoretically as great as all the avail- able resources of human knowledge, and limited only by the capacity of the learner and the accessibility of the materials. 4. The whole program of general science instruction must be very extensive, to the end that from the standpoint of any one school or teacher or grade or pupil it may be almost indefi- nitely flexible. 5. ... in the present state of educational knowledge it is un- wise, harmful, and even impertinent for educational theorists to delimit particular divisions of general science, or principles or topics therein, as being of relatively superior importance. 6. It is indispensable, once the aims of general science teaching are acceptably formulated, that the wealth of materials avail- able should be organized into suitable teaching units, each unit presupposing a fair assignment of time, method of attack, and result to be mastered. 7. Qualitatively, instruction in general science must not aim at exhaustiveness of knowledge, mastery of abstract principle or formula, capacity for detailed expression, or power to make definite application. (2} Other sciences : The special natural sciences provided in the senior high school should aim at intensive study of those subjects as logically organized studies by those pupils only who manifest special interest, special ability, or voca- tional need. The specific aims must be determined by the values previously considered. PROBLEMS FOR FURTHER CONSIDERATION 1. Analyze the activities of the home which call for natural-science knowledge and analyze the knowledges called for. 2. Analyze the knowledge of natural science valuable for the skilled worker in metal industries. 3. What knowledge of natural science is of value to the carpenter? 4. What knowledge of electricity is necessary for the average man or woman? — for the average factory worker? — for a man engaged in electric wiring, etc.? 5. What knowledge of chemistry is suitable for the ordinary farmer? — for the housekeeper? — for the pharmacist? 530 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION 6. What are the arguments for and against providing a course in chemistry or physics without laboratory work, assuming that laboratory work is still provided for special groups of pupils? 7. Outline arguments for and against an introductory course in "general" science to be taken by all pupils. 8. Examine and criticize claims made by various writers for the study of any given natural science in the secondary school. 9. In' any secondary-school textbook in chemistry analyze the relative importance attached to various phases of the subject. How would you rearrange and reapportion the material for a class of pupils who will not study chemistry further? Do the same for physics or biology. 10. Make a list of scientific concepts which you believe every secondary- school graduate should have acquired. 11. Outline definitely transfer values which you believe may be found in the study of any given natural science. 12. Criticize Spencer's arguments for the values of the study of science. (Cf. Spencer, H., Education, chapter i.) 13. Criticize Huxley's discussion of the values of science study. (Cf. Huxley, T., Science and Education, chaps, iv-vi.) 14. In any high school make a study of the amount of natural science study engaged in by members of several "classes" in their high-school courses. 15. For any college make a study of the units of natural science study pre- sented by candidates for admission to college. 16. Compare the relative values of "pure" and "applied" science. SELECTED REFERENCES I. General: > Barber, F. D., "Fundamental Considerations in the Reorganization of High-School Science," School Review, vol. xxiv, pp. 124-34. Coulter, J. G., "Proposed Status of Science Instruction in the Junior-Senior High School organization," Educational Administra- tion and Supervision, vol. i, pp. 639-45. Eliot, C. W., Changes Needed in American Secondary Education, Occasional Papers no. 2, Publications of the General Education Board. Huxley, T., Science and Education, especially chaps, rv-vi. Judd, C. H., The Psychology of High-School Subjects, chap. xiv. Pearson, K., Grammar of Science. Spencer, H., Education, chap. i. Twiss, G. R., chap, xn of Monroe, P. (Editor), Principles of Second- ary Education. Twiss, G. R., A Textbook of the Principles of Science Teaching. II. Biological sciences: Caldwell, O. W. (Chairman), "A Consideration of the Principles that should determine the Courses in Biology in Secondary Schools," Report of a Committee, School Science and Mathematics, vol. EX, pp. 241^17. Caldwell, O. W., Galloway, T. W., and Norris, H. W., "An Inves- tigation of the Teaching of Biological Subjects in Secondary Schools," School Science and Mathematics, vol. rx, pp. 581-97. Coulter, J. M., "Botany as a Factor in Education," School Review, vol. xii, pp. 609-17. Forbes, S. A., "Economic and Industrial Aspects of Secondary School Biology," School Science and Mathematics, vol. v, pp. 173- 83. Forbes, S. A., "The Pedagogical Value of Zoology," Educational Review, vol. I, pp. 328-36. Hunter, G. W., "The Methods, Content, and Purpose of Biologic Science in the Secondary Schools of the United States," School Science and Mathematics, vol. x, pp. 1-10, 103-11. Linville, H. R., "Old and New Ideals in Biology. Teaching," School Science and Mathematics, vol. x, pp. 210-16. Linville, H. R., et al., "The Practical Use of Biology," School Science and Mathematics, vol. rx, pp. 121-30. Lloyd, F. E., and Bigelow, M. A., The Teaching of Biology in the Secondary School, pp. 7-24, 62-80, 241-60. National Education Association, Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary Education, Report of Committee on Biology, School Science and Mathematics, vol. xvi, pp. 501-17. Snedden, D., Problems of Secondary Education, chap. xx. III. Chemistry: Allen, J. H., "The Value of Chemistry as a High-School Subject," School Science and Mathematics, vol. x, pp. 721-31, 788-800 (Nov.-Dec., 1910). Blanchard, A. A., "Elementary Chemistry as a Means of Develop- ing the Power of Independent Scientific Reasoning," School Sci- ence and Mathematics, vol. x, pp. 382-87 (May, 1910). Dennis, L. M., et al., "What Kind of Chemistry Shall be Taught in the High School and How Shall it be Most Effectively Taught?" Proceedings of the New York State Associated Principals (1902), pp. 439-54. Geer, W. C., "The Teaching of Chemistry in the Secondary Schools: A Study of Recent Practice and Results," School Review, vol. xiv, pp. 275-95. Morgan, W. C., "What Should Science Contribute to General Education?" School Science and Mathematics, vol. vm, pp. 1-9. 532 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION Smith, A., and Hall, E. H., The Teaching of Chemistry and Physics in the Secondary Schools, pp. 5-48. Snedden, D., Problems of Secondary Education, chap. xix. Symposium on High School Chemistry, "The Purpose and Organi- zation of Chemistry Teaching in Secondary Schools," a series of papers in School Science and Mathematics, vols. ix and x, espe- cially vol. EX, pp. 658-65, vol. x, pp. 18-21. Wade, F. B., "The Purpose and Method of the Chemistry Course in the Public High School" School Science and Mathematics (April, 1910), pp. 299-303. IV. Geography: Chamberlain, J. F. (Chairman), Report of the Committee on Second- ary School Geography, Proceedings of the National Education Asso- ciation (1909), pp. 820-28. Dodge, R. E., "Geography for Secondary Schools," Journal of Geography, vol. vi, pp. 241-54, 273-75. Hubbard, G. D., "Geography in the Secondary School," Proceedings of the National Education Association (1908), pp. 978-84. V. Physics: Avery, L. B., et al., Symposium on the "Purpose and Organization of Physics Teaching in Secondary Schools," a series of papers in vols. vin and ix of School Science and Mathematics. Guthe, K. E., "Some Reforms Needed in the Teaching of Physics," Science, vol. xxxi, pp. 1 ff. Hall, E. H., Part n of Smith, A., and Hall, E. H., The Teaching of Chemistry and Physics in the Secondary School. Mann, C. R., The Teaching of Physics, pp. 170-96. Mann, C. R., "The Aims and Tendencies in Physics Teaching," School Science and Mathematics, vol. vi, pp. 723-30. Snedden, D., Problems of Secondary Education, chap. xix. Spaulding, F. B., "The Culture Aim in Physics Teaching," School Science and Mathematics, vol. x, pp. 14-17. Spaulding, F. B., " What Knowledge (of Physics) is of Most Worth? " School Science and Mathematics, vol. viu, pp. 674-79. VI. General Science: Barber, F. D., "The Present Status and Real Meaning of General Science," School Review, vol. xxm, pp. 9-24. Briggs, T. H., "General Science in Secondary Schools," Teachers College Record, vol. xvn, pp. 19 ff. Coulter, J. G., "Present Tendencies in Teaching Elementary Science," Educational Review, vol. LIT, pp. 357-71. Eikenberry, W. L., "Some Facts about the General Science Situ- ation," School Review, vol. xxm, pp. 181-91. General Science Quarterly. THE PLACE OF THE NATURAL SCIENCES 533 Massachusetts State Committee on General Science, General Science Bulletin, Preliminary Draft, General Science Quarterly, vol. i, pp. 37-46, 88-101, 180-88, 228-32. National Education Association, Commission on the Reorganiza- tion of Secondary Education, Report of Committee on Science, Bureau of Education Bulletin. Quickstad, N. J., " Some Phases of the General Science Problem," General Science Quarterly, vol. i, pp. 153-61. Roecker, W. F., "An Elementary Course hi General Science: Con- tent and Method," School Science and Mathematics, vol. xiv, pp. 755-69. Snedden, D., Problems of Secondary Education, chap. xxi. School Review, vol. xxv, pp. 453-60, "Review of Current Literature on General Science." (Summarizes aims, arguments for and against, etc.) Webb, H. A., "A Quantitative Analysis of General Science," School Science and Mathematics, vol. xvn, pp. 534-45. Extended bibliography: Bibliography of Science Teaching, Bureau of Education, Bulletin (1911), no. 1. "Bibliography of General Science," General Science Quarterly, vol. i, pp. 146-52. CHAPTER XVI THE PLACE OF SOCIAL SCIENCES IN THE PROGRAM OF STUDIES 231. Historical position in the program. While much ancient history, chronology, geography, and mythology was doubtless taught in connection with the classical study of the Latin grammar school, no social science as such was studied in America until the beginning of the academy move- ment. In the middle of the eighteenth century Franklin recommended the extensive study of history and geography in the academy which he proposed and which was founded at that time. By the beginning of the nineteenth century those studies had attained some prominence in the acade- mies and by the beginning of the high-school movement in the third decade of the nineteenth century history and geography had attained a permanent position in the pro- gram of the American secondary school. By the Massachusetts law of 1827, which marked the real beginning of the public high school, geography was prescribed for elementary schools, United States history for all high schools, and "history" (other than that of the United States) for all high schools in larger cities. Stimu- lated by the academy movement and by such influences as the Massachusetts law above mentioned the study of geogra- phy and history developed even more rapidly than the pub- lic high schools themselves. Thus, in Massachusetts, where there were not more than a dozen high schools at the time, out of 294 towns reporting in 1837 to the State Department, 209 towns claimed to offer United States history in their schools and 94 towns claimed to offer other forms of history. THE PLACE OF SOCIAL SCIENCES 535 Likewise in 1838-39 "political science" was a subject claimed to be offered in 29 towns. In 1842 Horace Mann reported that 10,177 pupils in Massachusetts were engaged in the study of United States history and 2571 were engaged in the study of "general history." Equally noticeable was the development of courses in history in the academies of New York State.1 By the beginning of the second half of the nineteenth century the study of geography had been relegated for the most part to the elementary school, the study of history in many forms had found a permanent place in the program of the public high school, colleges had begun to prescribe his- tory as a requirement for admission (Harvard and Michi- gan in 1847), and in some high schools "political science" or "political economy " had appeared in the program, "polit- ical philosophy" having appeared in the program of the Boston English Classical (High) School in 1821. During the latter half of the nineteenth century the study of history, and to a much less extent of other social sciences, continued to develop. The development of the social sciences in the secondary school from 1890 to the present has already been indicated in Table CXIX. In 1893 the Committee of Ten on Secondary School Studies recommended the study of history for all pupils during the first year of high-school work and at other points in the course, the tune being distributed as shown in Table CXXXIV. Such an assignment of time and arrangement of courses did not, however, meet the recommendations of the sub- committee on *' history, civil government, and political economy," which provided for an eight-year or a six-year course in social studies as in Table CXXXV. 1 Russell, W. F., "The Entrance of History into the Curriculum of the Secondary School," The History Teacher's Magazine, vol. v, pp. 313 jf. 536 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION TABLE CXXXIV * High- school grade Classical course Latin- scientific course Modern language course English course Number ( I 4 4 4 4 of II 3 0 0 3 Periods i m 0 2 2 3 per week IV 3 (elective) 3 (elective) 3 (elective) 3 Total 7 or 10 6 or 9 6 or 9 13 Per cent total 8 4 or 12 5 7 SOT 11 3 7 5 or 11 3 16 25 * Committee of Ten, Report on Secondary School Studies (Bureau of Education edition), pp. 46-47. TABLE CXXXV * Grade Eighth/ear course Six-year course II III IV Biography and mythology. Biography and mythology. American history and elements of civil government. Greek and Roman history with their Oriental connections. French history. (To be so taught as to elucidate the general movement of mediaeval and modern history.) English history. (To be so taught as to elucidate the general movement of medi- seval and modern history.) American history. A special period, studied in an intensive manner; and civil government. Biography and mythology. Biography and mythology. American history, and civil gov- ernment. Greek and Roman history, with their Oriental connections. English history. (To be so taught as to elucidate the general movement of medi- aeval and modern history.) American history and civil gov- ernment. * Committee of Ten, Report on Secondary School Studies (Bureau of Education edition), pp. 163-64. THE PLACE OF SOCIAL SCIENCES 537 The same sub-committee recommended:* That formal instruction in political economy be omitted from the school program; but that economic subjects be treated in connection with other pertinent subjects. . . . That to Ameri- can history in the first group of studies be added the elements of civil government. Neither the report of the Committee of Ten nor the report of its sub-committee on the social sciences succeeded hi creating a desirable amount of order out of the chaos which had previously existed in the study of the social sciences: hence in 1896 a committee was appointed by the American Historical Association "to consider the subject of history hi the secondary schools and to draw up a scheme of college entrance requirements hi history." That committee made a survey of the current practices in the teaching of history hi about 260 representative secondary schools hi the country. It reported in 1898: The subjects in the order of their frequency are: (1) English and American history, taught in more than half the schools; (2) "Gen- eral history," taught in almost exactly half the schools; (3) Greek and Roman history, taught in about hah* the schools; (4) Euro- pean history taught in about one third of the schools, the three forms — mediaeval, modern, and French history — being about equally common. In a very few schools the history of the state in which they are situated is a subject. The favorite topics are, there- fore, English and American history, usually both taught in the same school ; Greek and Roman history, usually both taught in the same school; and some form of what is commonly called "general history." 2 ... In general four different systems (of the order of subjects) have been followed: (1) About one third of the schools follow the 1 Committee of Ten, Report on Secondary School Studies (Bureau of Education), pp. 162-63. 2 Committee of Seven, The Study of History in Schools (The Macmillan Company print), p. 139. 538 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION chronological method, taking up in succession ancient history, general history, and modern history in some form, usually English or American or both; ... (2) A much smaller number of schools, perhaps a seventh of the whole, prefer the order — general, ancient, and modern; ... (3) The third method begins with American, or sometimes with English history, and then takes general history, bringing in ancient history last. About one fifth of the schools reporting use this system; ... (4) A fourth method, which pre- vails in more than a quarter of the schools, is that of beginning with American history, following with ancient history and ending with a general course; . . . To make the generalization in broader form: the returns from a body of schools most interested in the subject of history show that one half prefer to begin high-school work with the history nearest to the pupils in experience, and then to take up wider choices, while one third have the chronological system, and the remainder begin with the general survey of the field. 1 The same committee recommended a four-years' high- school course as follows: 2 As a thorough and systematic course of study, we recommend four years of work, beginning with ancient history and ending with American history. For these four years we propose the division of the general field into four blocks or periods, and recommend that they be studied in the order in which they are here set down, which in large measure accords with the natural order of events, and shows the sequence of historical facts. (1) Ancient history, with special reference to Greek and Roman history, but including also a short introductory study of the more ancient nations. This period should also embrace the early Middle Ages, and should close with the establishment of the Holy Roman Empire (800) or with the death of Charlemagne (814), or with the treaty of Verdun (843). (2) Mediaeval and modern European history, from the close of the first period to the present tune. (3) English history. (4) American history and civil government. 1 Committee of Seven, The Study of History in Schools (The Macmillan Company print), pp. 140-41. 2 Ibid., pp. 34-35. THE PLACE OF SOCIAL SCIENCES 539 The report of this committee had a marked effect on the teaching of history in the high school, an effect which is still strongly felt. However, the Committee of Five on the Study of History in Secondary Schools suggested certain changes among which the most important were: l (1) the requirement of three years of study in history by every pupil; (2) changes In the content of the various "blocks"; (3) greater emphasis on modern history; (4) more atten- tion for civil government; (5) a revision of the four blocks as to the order of their study, suggesting the order — (A) Ancient history, (B) English history, (C) modern European history, (D) American history and government. The effect of the reports of the two committees (Committee of Seven and Committee of Five) on present-day conditions may be observed in Table CXXXVII. It may be noted in the reports of the Committee of Ten, the Committee of Seven, and the Committee of Five that social studies other than history were almost neglected. Throughout the history of the high school the study of civics has had a rather precarious existence, commonly being found in the form of civil government confined to somewhat formal study of governmental agencies and taught as an appendage to the study of American history. It is only within the past decade or so that the study of civics has begun to come to its own in the program of studies in the high school. Even more precarious has been the position of the study of econo- mics in the high school as may be seen from Table CXXXVII. 232. Present status. In 1914 the Bureau of Education attempted to ascertain the status of the social sciences in secondary schools. Returns were received from 62.5 per 1 Report of the Committee of Five, The Study of History in Secondary Schools, especially pp. 65, 24 /., 53 ff., 9-11, 64. Committee appointed in 1907: its report published in 1911. 540 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION cent of all the secondary schools in the United States. While the data received were not altogether satisfactory they give a fair idea of the situation as it was at that time. From the returns it was estimated that thirty per cent of the schools reporting required for graduation all of the his- tory they offered and thirteen per cent made history entirely an elective. Also the returns indicated* that between 1910 and 1914 forty-three per cent of the schools reporting increased then* offerings, 11.5 per cent decreased their offerings, and the other schools reporting made no change in the amount offered. The figures presented in the following table will give a fair idea of conditions in 1914. TABLE CXXXVL NUMBER ANT> PEB CENT OF THE SCHOOLS WHICH REPORTED OFFERING SEVERAL AMOUNTS OF HlSTORY REQUIRED AND ELECTIVE * Number of hour* Required Eledite Number Percent Number Per cent None 312 234 396 1,042 1,679 674 136 16 7.0 5.2 8.8 23.2 37.4 15.0 3.0 .4 2,189 185 316 639 805 724 391 118 40.8 3.4 5.9 11.9 15.0 13.6 7.3 2.2 36-88 hours 108-176 hours 180—264 hours 288-528 hours 540-704 hours 720-880 hours More than 880 hours Totals 4,489 100.0 5,367 100.1 Median amount of time for required history . . . 28S-528 hours or between 1.6 and 2.9 "uniU." * Table compiled from data given by Briggs, T. H., in Report of the United Siatet Commitnoner of Education (1915), vol. u, p. 120. Certain of Briggs's percentages required correction. THE PLACE OF SOCIAL SCIENCES 541 Even more illustrative of the place at present held by the social sciences are the figures presented in Table CXXXVII. TABLE CXXXVII. NUMBER OF SCHOOLS OFFERING REQUIRED AND ELECTIVE HISTORY OF VARIOUS KINDS IN EACH HIGH SCHOOL GRADE* / // III IV 1-1V Grand total Req. Elec. Req. Elec. Req. Elec. Req. Elec. Req. Elec. Ancient history. . . Medieval and modern Euro- pean history . . . English history . .. American history . Industrial history. 2049 195 337 121 22 589 11 48 1324 97 191 58 77 242 11 9 1588 1818 332 in 23 230 37 179 874 1401 358 51 103 139 60 17 158 1000 1157 730 30 641 140 45 123 1059 1749 360 138 465 469 12 29 70 133 5376 36 2397 310 7 26 105 268 1391 202 157S 1026 9 3494 3083 1959 4341 113 3857 498 279 2347 2662 2666 1860 520 2419 1566 47 6141 5745 4625 6201 633 6276 2064 326 32011 General history. . . Totals 3372 2009 4291 3003 3901 4375 6360 4600 17924 14087 Number of schools reporting 7197 Average number of courses required 2.5 Average number of courses elective 2+ Number of schools requiring all history offered 2172 Number of schools offering only elective history 963 Numbei T of schools ottering only elective history 963 :r of schools offering no history 10 * Table compiled from data given by Briggs, T. H., in Report of the United States Com- missioner of Education (1915), vol. H, p. 121. From this table a number of facts concerning the status of the social sciences in the secondary school may be noted : (1) The influence of the recommendations of the Committee of Seven is noticeable in the order in which the four " blocks " of history are studied, i.e., ancient history in the first year (required in seventy-four per cent of schools where any history is required in the first year), mediaeval and modern European history in the second year (required in forty- five per cent of schools requiring any history in the second year), English history in the third year (required in thirty- seven per cent of the schools where any history is required 542 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION in the third year), and American history in the fourth year (required in ninety -five per cent of schools where any history is required in the fourth year); (2) "general history" has apparently all but disappeared from the program; (3) his- tory in some form is required in the first year of 38.5 per cent of the schools reporting, in the second year of 55.9 per cent of the schools, in the third year of 43.4 per cent, and in the fourth year of 49.4 per cent; (4) it is probable that civics is prescribed either in connection with American history or as a separate subject in more than one half the schools reporting and is offered as an elective subject in another third; (5) civics is taught as a prescribed subject in the fourth year of one third of the schools reporting and as an elective subject in the fourth year by about one quarter or one fifth of those schools; (6) economics has begun to find a place in the program of the secondary school, commonly in the fourth year. Current theory and practice in the study of civics deserves special attention at the present time. The Committee of Seven recommended that the study of " civil government " be made a separate subject of study in the fourth year of the high school wherever time permitted, and that where time did not permit "civil government" be taught in con- nection with American history. The latter method was generally adopted and the study of civics commonly was restricted to constitutional law and the machinery of Na- tional and State government. Within recent years consid- erable dissatisfaction has been manifest with the tendency to teach civics as an appendage to American history, to delay its study to the last part of the school course, and to restrict its content to the larger affairs of National and State government. Consequently a strong movement has begun to introduce a new kind of civics which should be studied earlier in the course as a separate subject, which THE PLACE OF SOCIAL SCIENCES 543 should find the main points of emphasis in the affairs of community life, and have a firmer basis of immediate inter- est for the pupil. "Community civics" has, therefore, re- ceived more and more emphasis in the secondary-school program within the past few years and bids fair to establish itself. Its function and character will be considered in a later section. If we compare the position of the social sciences in the programs of the American and European secondary schools, noteworthy differences are at once evident. Thus in the French secondary school for boys the study of geography and history (for the most part combined) is found in every grade, from the infant class to the philosophical-mathemat- ical form, and is required of every pupil throughout the course, approximately one seventh of the total time of the entire course being devoted to such studies and approxi- mately the same proportion of time being devoted to such studies in the last four grades. Morals and civics are taught in connection with history in the earlier grades and as a special subject one hour per week in the last two grades of the first cycle. In the Prussian higher schools for boys social studies begin with geography in the lower grades, that subject being com- bined with history later. History is begun with stories in connection with the study of the mother tongue, appearing as a separate subject in Quarta (age about 11), and contin- uing throughout the course as a required subject for all pupils. In the entire course from one eighth to one tenth of the total time is devoted to the study of history and geogra- phy, that proportion holding also for the last four grades of the course. Religion is required of all pupils two or three periods per week throughout the course. This, of course, functions in many ways as a social study. In French and in German education it may be noted: 544 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION (1) that the study of history forms an important part of the secondary -school program throughout the course; (2) that the study of history is prescribed for every pupil; (3) that in Germany " religion " and in France " la morale " is studied as a separate subject; (4) that the social sciences given are closely correlated; (5) that a large part of the social studies is uniform for all secondary-school pupils. 233. Character and ultimate aims. While the several social sciences differ in their character and in their specific aims as studies in the secondary school, it is worth while to consider the general character and ultimate aims of the social sciences as a unit before attempting the separate analy- sis of the various subjects belonging to the general field. In the Report of the Committee on Social Studies of the Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary Education social studies are defined and their aims set as follows: l 1 . Definition of the social studies. — The social studies are under- stood to be those whose subject matter relates directly to the organ- ization and development of human society, and to man as a mem- ber of social groups. 2. Aims of the social studies. — The social studies differ from other studies by reason of their social content rather than in social aim; for the keynote of modern education is "social efficiency," and in- struction in all subjects should contribute to this end. Yet, from the nature of their content, the social studies afford peculiar oppor- tunities for the training of the individual as a member of society. Whatever their value from the point of view of personal culture, unless they contribute directly to the cultivation of social efficiency on the part of the pupil they fail in their most important function. They should accomplish this end through the development of an appreciation of the nature and laws of social life, a sense of the responsibility of the individual as a member of social groups, and the intelligence and the will to participate effectively in the pro- motion of the social well-being. 1 The Social Studies in Secondary Education, National Education Asso- ciation, Report of the Committee on Social Studies of the Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary Education, Bureau of Education Bulletin (1916), no. 28, p. 9. THE PLACE OF SOCIAL SCIENCES 545 In this statement of the committee a number of important facts are to be noted: (1) the conception that all the social studies may be considered from many points of view as con- stituting a group of studies, each differing more or less from every other, yet all with important common elements in- volving a common end — the development of social effici- ency; (2) emphasis is placed on the direct values of the studies involved; (3) the specific ends to be aimed at in attaining social efficiency are (a) knowledge and apprecia- tion of the nature and laws of social life, (6) the develop- ment of a sense of responsibility in the individual as a member of social groups, (c) the development of the in- telligence and habits which may lead to effective participa- tion in social activities. The recommendations of this committee noticeably in- volve the conception that the social studies of the secondary school should be organized and taught with reference to the activities of modern life in which the individual will engage. This is seen from the importance attached to modern history and from the important position assigned to civics and related studies. (Table CXXXVIII.) 234. Values of the study of history. History as a subject of study in the secondary school has passed through three fairly definite stages and entered on its fourth stage. During the earliest period history was studied primarily as ancillary to the study of the classics. That stage was followed by a second period when history was studied largely as an in- formational subject. Later still history was studied with emphasis on its supposed disciplinary values. Finally his- tory is now studied with particular emphasis on its sociologi- cal values with special reference to the activities of present- day life as participated in by the ordinary man or woman. The relative emphasis given in any one period to certain values does not negate the existence of other values. Hence, 546 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION TABLE CXXXVIII* Seventh year: (1) Geography — \ year. J These two courses may be taught European history — % year. 5 in sequence, or parallel through the year. Civics — taught as a phase of the above and other subjects, or segregated in one or two periods a week, or both, or (2) European history — • 1 year. Geography — taught incidentally to, and as a factor in, the history. Civics — taught as a phase of the above and other subjects, or segregated in one or two periods a week, or both. Eighth year: American history — • § year. ) These two courses may be taught Civics — ^ year. j in sequence, or parallel through the year. Ninth year: (1) Civics: Continuing the civics of the preceding year, but with more emphasis upon State, national, and world aspects — 5 year. Civics: Economic and vocational aspects — • | year. History: Much use made of history hi relation to the topics of the above courses, or (2) Civics — economic and vocational, i 1 year, in sequence or Economic History. ) parallel. Tenth to twelfth years: I. European history to approximately the end of the seventeenth century — 1 year. This would include ancient and oriental civilization, English history to the end of the period mentioned, and the period of American colonization. II. European history (including English history) since approximately the end of the seventeenth century — 1 (or ^) year. III. American history since the seventeenth century — • 1 (or 5) year. IV. Problems of American Democracy — • 1 (or £) year. * Committee on Social Studies, op. cit., pp, 15, 35. before attempting any detailed analysis of the values of the study of history, it is well to make a preliminary classifi- cation of the various values claimed. Here, as in the case of many other subjects of study we may classify the values claimed in two comprehensive groups : (I) direct and specific values ; (II) indirect and gen- eral values. These comprehensive groups of values may again be sub-divided. Thus under the head of direct and specific values may be considered: (1) direct social-civic THE PLACE OF SOCIAL SCIENCES 547 values; (2) direct vocational values; (3) direct avocational values; (4) direct propaedeutic values. Under the head of indirect and general values may be considered: (1) values of the study of history for the development of certain general social concepts; (2) values of the study claimed to arise from the training of certain valuable mental traits and their transference to non-historical material. In the following sections will be considered seriatim : I. Direct and specific values: (1) Direct social-civic values; (2) Direct vocational values; (3) Direct avocational values; (4) Direct propaedeutic values. II. Indirect and general values: (1) Conceptual values; (2) Transfer values. 235. Direct social-civic values. History must always be conceived as one of the principal subjects of study operating toward the attainment of the social-civic aim of secondary education. In common with the other social sciences it deals directly with social phenomena as its content. It differs from the other social studies (except as they may as- sume an historical aspect) in that: (1) it deals with the phenomena of human activity in their actual processes, dynamic and genetic; (2) its field is more extensive and permits the contact with widely variant conditions; (3) it makes possible the understanding of existing conditions which cannot be appreciated except in terms of the past; (4) it allows opportunity to interpret cause and effect in human action where that relation cannot be seen except with the passage of time; (5) its study offers one of the few opportunities afforded in the secondary school to gain an understanding of other countries and other peoples. To conceive that the direct social-civic values of history 548 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION are to be measured solely by the extent to which one may consciously employ certain facts or pieces of information concerning an historical event in solving a problem of the present is to have a very superficial view of the function of historical study. The direct application of a knowledge of historical events to present-day problems is, of course, a very real result of the study of history. Much more impor- tant, however, than acquired knowledges in the field of history are the less tangible but none the less real attitudes developed through the study of that subject. One may have but the haziest remembrance of facts concerning the development of the American democracy after a study of American his- tory, but one cannot help having a changed attitude as the result of such study. The secondary-school pupil may for- get every date and name in English history after a year's study, but he can never again have the same attitude toward the English nation or any other nation that he had before he studied that subject. No greater mistake could be made in estimating the direct values of the study of history than to assume that such values are to be measured solely by the specific application to modern life of the knowledges acquired in such study. For convenience we may consider the direct social-civic values of the study of history (1) with reference to the more personal activities of the individual, (2) with reference to those activities of the individual which more directly affect united social action, and (3) with reference to social inte- gration. (1 ) The personal conduct of the individual : The individual 's character and conduct is determined in part by the forces of heredity and in part by his experiences in his environ- ment. By far the most important part of his environment (from the viewpoint of formal education) is his social envi- ronment. The individual is affected, however, by those THE PLACE OF SOCIAL SCIENCES 549 parts only of his environment with which his experiences bring him into contact. His direct experiences must per- force be greatly limited: his indirect and vicarious expe- riences are limited only by the experiences of man and the possibility of representing them to the individual's mind. Such vicarious experiences may be afforded through the action of literature or the faithful re-presentation of history and biography. The study of history, therefore, by enlarg- ing the field of individual experience may contribute to the character and conduct of the individual. That contribution may take the direction of stimulating ambition and ten- dencies to act along certain general lines or it may take the direction of moral education. True it is that the events of history illustrate human action indiscriminately moral or immoral. True it is also that the teaching of history cannot be organized solely or even primarily for purposes of moral education. It is even true that in some cases where the ethical values of the study of history have been emphasized the results have been unsatisfactory: e.g., the development of a patriotism which is vainglorious and unfair to other nations. Nevertheless, it must be recognized that there is a fundamental truth expressed by the aphorism of Terence: "Homo sum; humani nihil a me alienum puto"; and that the moral training which may be secured from the study of history has all the advantages and all the disadvantages which are to be found in moral training secured from the study of human experiences in any field. Whether or not the study of history leads to the improvement of character is dependent on the method of such study and the teaching afforded. The essential fact is that history affords plentiful material for such teaching, far transcending the amount of material which can be found in the immediate experience of the individual. It was suggested above that the attitudes (ideals, ambi- 550 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION tions, tendencies to act) developed through the study of his- tory are probably more important than the specific knowl- edges acquired through such study. For the personal char- acter and conduct of the individual the study of history is valuable for the stimulation of laudable ambitions, of ideals of character, standards of conduct, even certain forms of "hero-worship," which may be guiding forces in the life of the individual. Hence the special value of biography as a part of history and the desirability of some emphasis on the personal conduct and character of truly noble men and women. (2) The individual's participation in social-group activi- ties : By far the greater part of the major activities of soci- ety are carried on through social institutions (the State, the home, the Church, the vocation, the school). An under- standing of such institutions, the interpretation of their ideals, their interrelations, their functions in modern society, cannot be gained without some acquaintance with the na- ture of their development. Here again the values of the study of such institutions and their interrelations are not to be measured solely, or even mainly, by the extent to which the individual may consciously apply some bits of historical knowledge. Far more important are the attitudes toward social-group activities developed through the study of his- tory and the unconscious tendencies to act in such activ- ities. It is only when one thinks of the direct social-civic values of the study of history in terms of the applicability of pieces of historical information only and loses sight of the influence of historical study in developing social ideals, social stand- ards, attitudes, and tendencies to act that one is tempted to minimize the social-civic values of the study. Likewise, it is only when the teaching of history develops merely histori- cal information and fails to develop ideals, attitudes, and THE PLACE OF SOCIAL SCIENCES 551 tendencies to act, that history in the secondary school fails to achieve its most important direct values. (3} Integrating values of the study of history: The study of history must always be one of the important means em- ployed by the secondary school to develop the common knowledges, ideals, standards, traditions, modes of thought and action, essential for social solidarity. The importance of the integrating function of secondary education has been emphasized in prior chapters. To the end of social integra- tion all the social sciences may contribute much. History here possesses peculiar advantages, dealing as it does with conditions which have determined the society in which we live and bringing to consciousness the common activities, traditions, ideals of humanity and of one's own society. Frequently the conception of the integrating value of the study of history has manifested itself in connection with the development of patriotism only. Such a conception is very narrow — narrow not only in the sense that it has fre- quently emphasized a false type of patriotism, but also in the sense that it loses sight of the fact that the existence of a certain degree of social-mindedness is more essential than loyalty. This is, of course, particularly important in the American democracy. If the study of history fails to aid the development of that unity of sentiment, ideals, thought, and action, which is essential for the endurance and development of democracy, it fails to achieve one of its most important ends. 236. Direct vocational values claimed. Direct vocational values to be derived from the study of history for those destined to become teachers of history and certain other subjects, for those destined to enter the field of diplomacy, and for a few others are readily perceived. Such values, however, must be considered limited and highly contingent. Far less contingent and far more general must be considered 552 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION those direct vocational values which may be derived from acquaintance with the development of commerce and in- dustry, the part played by economics in social development, the historical relation of the various forms of industry, the changing relations of labor and capital, etc. Here again the development of attitudes and tendencies to act must be con- ceived as far more important than the accumulation of in- formation. As one of the major social institutions the voca- tion has important historical associations acquaintance with which may contribute much to vocational efficiency in its broader aspects. Hence the importance sometimes attached to the study of industrial history or commercial history in certain courses of the secondary school. The more history includes a study of economic and industrial factors in the development of civilization — a marked tendency at the present time — the more the study of history may contrib- ute to direct vocational values in the secondary school. 237. Direct avocational values. History, as every other study in the program of the secondary school, may establish the basis of a perpetual enjoyment in moments of leisure. Here, however, history can claim little that any other sub- ject which may arouse a special interest cannot claim, except, possibly, where history encroaches on the field of literature in the borderland of mythology, biography, and pseudo- historical material. 238. Direct propaedeutic values. In many ways the study of history may be considered as a basic study for the study of several other subjects, so much so that whole schemes of education have been built up on the culture- epoch theory with history as its base.1 Certainly we must recognize the fact that the humanitarian studies, such as the social studies, literature, ethics, philosophy, and the rest, cannot be properly pursued without some basic his- 1 Cf. DeGarmo, C., Herbart and lite Ilerbartians, pp. 107-29. THE PLACE OF SOCIAL SCIENCES 553 torical knowledge and understanding. Direct and indirect propaedeutic values are, therefore, to be found in the study of history. To conceive that such values are valid for those only who pursue higher studies in college or the university is to assume that contact with the problems and materials of those studies must be limited to college and university experience. Propaedeutic values of the study of history are, of course, as important for those not going to college or the university as for those who do — possibly even more so, since formal education in those fields is lacking for the former. 239. Conceptual values claimed. The point was made above that the chief values to be derived from the study of history involved the development of attitudes and tenden- cies to act on the part of the individual. This point was made in special connection with direct values. Much the same point may be emphasized in connection with certain more comprehensive and more fundamental factors which involve the conscious or unconscious functioning of general social concepts to be derived from the study of history. Among such fundamental concepts may be emphasized those involving the continuity and unity of human experi- ence and of civilization, human activity and social organi- zation as dynamic and evolutionary, the dependence of the present on the past and the responsibility of the present for the future, the relation of the individual to society and its development.1 It is idle to say that such concepts are not always developed from the study of history. The important point is that they cannot be developed without some ac- quaintance with history. It is idle also to say that such con- cepts do not function directly in the activities of the indi- vidual. By their very nature such general concepts cannot 1 Cf. Allen, J. W., The Place of History in Education, chap, x; Johnson. H., The Teaching of History, pp. 74 ff. 6'54 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION be analyzed as to their influence on specific actions, but, since they must represent an important part of one's social philosophy, they must function in every social act of the individual. Though they may function in a fashion which may be considered indirect, their functioning is none the less real — perhaps more real even than the functioning of supposedly specific and direct values. 240. Transfer values claimed. As for most subjects of study in the secondary-school program extensive transfer values are commonly claimed for the study of history. Thus Salmon: l Moreover, it must be borne in mind that history, like many other subjects, is in the curriculum for a double object — for the direct information that it gives and for its help in mental training. And Chase: 2 Memory is the most wonderful and important of our intellectual faculties, and all that tends to strengthen and develop it is of the highest importance. History is foremost among the studies that do this, for in its very nature it is a memory study, and memory gains facility by practice. Or Hinsdale : 3 While slight attention suffices to show that history has disci- plinary values, some well-directed thought is required to discover how great and varied this value is. Taught even in the poorest way — that is, by dint of iterating and reiterating unorganized facts — it trains the memory; taught philosophically — that is, care being taken wisely to choose and properly to organize the facts — it yields to no other subject in mnemonic value. All that has been urged concerning the memory will be admitted. 1 Salmon, L., "Some Principles in the Teaching of History," First Yearbook of the National Society for the Scientific Study of Education, p. 32. 2 Chase, W. J., on p. 289 of Johnston, C. H. (Editor), High-School Education. 3 Hinsdale, B. A., How to Study and Teach History, pp. 7-8. THE PLACE OF SOCIAL SCIENCES 555 But that history is an equally important valuable discipline of the imagination has not been as generally perceived. But history does far more for the mind than merely to exercise the powers of representation; it is also a valuable discipline of the thinking faculties. Modern psychology denies the existence of such general faculties or powers as Hinsdale assumes may be so readily trained through the study of history. As was pointed out, however, in discussing the problems of transfer values, the denial of the obsolete " faculty psychology " does not of itself negate the possibility of the transfer of improved ef- ficiency, but demands a reconstruction and reinterpretation of " discipline " in terms of accepted psychological theory. Such a reinterpretation was attempted in Chapter XI and in its general form need not be reconsidered here. Accord- ingly as one accepts or rejects the possibility of appreciable amounts of transfer he may estimate the transfer values of the study of history. One very important fact, however, is apparently neglected by proponents and opponents of the study of history. The problems of transfer in the case of history are in important respects different from the prob- lems of transfer in the case of most school studies, if, indeed, the problems supposed to involve transfer do really involve it. In the case of most studies for which transfer values are claimed or denied the problem involves the application of improved efficiency acquired in connection with content of one kind to content of a widely different character; e.g., the transfer of improved efficiency acquired in connection with mathematical material to non-mathematical material. In the case of history, however, there is a vast field for the application of improved efficiency gained in connection with specific social data studied to other social data not studied. In other words the improved efficiency is to be employed in connection with content and situations of the 556 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION same or relatively similar character. This is doubtless a case of transfer, but surely transfer of a far different kind from transfer as commonly considered in relation to most subjects of study in the school. 241. Factors conditioning the values of history. Great as are the values to be derived from the study of history it must be recognized that the subject suffers important limi- tations. Among those limitations the ones considered below are worthy of special attention. (1) Subjects of study differ widely in the extent to which their materials lend themselves to ready manipulation for purposes of instruction and learning. This factor has been emphasized by Keatinge: x Those who write at large on Education seldom realize that the branches of knowledge commonly taught in schools vary greatly in the ease with which they lend themselves to manipulation. . . . What are the elements necessary in a subject which is to lend itself to manipulation? It is easy to sketch in the qualifications. In the main they are four in number. The apparatus must be inexpensive and readily procured; it must be easy to see what is the teacher's work on the one hand and the boy's work on the other; there must be a facility for setting home work that shall be different in kind from the work done in class, and these exercises must be fairly mechanical (for too much refined judgment must not be expected from the average boy); it must be possible to attain to some generalizations, abstractions, or rules which can be applied to fresh matter. Indeed it is upon the presence of this latter ele- ment that most of the others depend. The older subjects fulfill these conditions well. . . . When we turn to history we find the conditions very badly ful- filled. It is difficult to devise preparation for the boy other than the learning from a text-book of the facts of the lesson that is to be given or the revising of the facts of a lesson that has been given. In school work it is not always possible to arrive at historical generalizations and apply them to fresh matter. 1 Keating, M. W., Studies in the Teaching of History, pp. 1-3, 38 ff. THE PLACE OF SOCIAL SCIENCES 557 The nub of the problem is to be found, of course, in the difficulty of so manipulating the materials of history as to throw them into problem form without which reflective thinking cannot be encouraged or fostered, and to arrange the teaching materials of history in such form as may foster the process of dissociation.1 It is obvious that, if the prin- ciples of social action which it is desired that the study of history should develop are actually to be developed, some means must be provided for the abstraction of those general principles from the historical situations presented. Now it is necessary for favorable conditions of such generalization that a number of situations be presented which are analo- gous but which differ in all other respects other than the general principle which it is desired to dissociate. The chronological character of history precludes any very effec- tive use of this method. For this reason some have suggested the abandonment of the chronological order in dealing with historical material and the adoption of some method which may make possible comparison and abstraction. Thus Seeley: 2 We still arrange historic phenomena under periods, centuries, reigns, dynasties, but what is wanted is a real rather than a tem- poral classification. The phenomena should be classified under such headings as Constitutional, International, Economical, Industrial, etc. Nor should each state be studied by itself, but all states together, the comparative method being constantly employed, and much attention being given to the classification of states. ... In short science brings together phenomena of the same kind, but history brings together phenomena of different kinds, which have chanced to appear at the same time. Such a conception of the teaching of history may be opposed by the statement that it is no longer history which 1 Cf. sections 169jf. 1 Seeley, J. B., Methods of Teaching History, Pedagogical Library, vol. I, p. 198. 558 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION is being studied. Be it so! The answer to such an objec- tion is that the character of the study of " history " in the secondary school is to be determined by the aim which emphasizes the phenomena of human action regardless of chronology. In so far as chronology may assist in the attain- ment of that aim it is justified. In so far as it fails it must be abandoned for the sake of greater values. In any event the limitations of history must be recognized.1 (2) History is not an exact science and can never become an exact science — if, in fact, it may properly be denomi- nated a science at all. The importance of this factor arises not so much from the fact that specific reactions on the part of the individual cannot be exactly determined (a fact which has its advantages as well as its disadvantages), but that the study of history may always be colored by the teacher or textbook and have widely different results for different pupils who have studied the subject. The facts of history are of course certain: our knowledge of them is, however, not always correct, and interpretations of them are sometimes widely divergent. Two dangers, therefore, are always present, one that the pupil may have only an ex parte opinion on some social problems, the other that, on finding disagreement among authorities, he may be discour- aged in his attempt to arrive at the truth. These dangers are always to be guarded against. (3) It takes generations to establish a body of theory and practice around the teaching of any subject of study which may be considered relatively stable and efficient. In the development of the study of history in the American second- ary school there has been manifest a failure as yet to estab- lish any body of theory and practice which approaches even 1 On the problem-solving methods of teaching history see Parker, S. C., Methods of Teaching in High Schools, pp. 174 jf.; Keatinge, M. W., op. cit., pp. SB/. THE PLACE OF SOCIAL SCIENCES 559 desirable amounts of uniformity and stability. Textbooks vary widely, the contents of courses are greatly dissimilar and the treatment different in many schools where any attempt is made to do more than teach a certain number of facts. It is difficult to determine the actual values accru- ing from the study of history in the secondary school where such varying conditions are found. (4) Since the values aimed at in the study of history are in part general and in all cases somewhat intangible it must always be difficult to measure the results achieved. This is, to be sure, true of most subjects of study, but particularly true of those studies whose principal values are to be found in the development of character — moral and social — of the individual. Certain results of teaching in mathematics, in the natural sciences, and in language study may readily be estimated and checked from time to time. In the case of history little can be done in that direction except as far as the accumulation of historical information is concerned. 242. Meaning and scope of civics. The study of civics in the secondary school had its beginning in the study of the federal constitution, various State constitutions, and in a few cases of such material as city charters, in the early high school. Thus at least as early as 1828 Stanbury's Catechism on the Constitution of the United States was studied in the English High School of Boston, and in Salem the English High School course of 1842 included the study of " the City Charter, Constitution of Massachusetts, and . . . Consti- tution of the United States." From the beginning, there- fore, the study of " civics " meant the rather formal (fre- quently catechetical) study of the machinery of State and National government, thus justifying the term "civil government." l Throughout the nineteenth century the study of civics included little else than this. 1 For example, see Sullivan's Political Classbook, or Bayard On the Con- stitution, two books in common use in the earlier high school. 560 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION Within the past decade or so the feeling has been growing stronger and stronger that the study of the machinery of the National Government, valuable though it may be made, is far from adequate for the purpose of training citizens. Present-day theory tends to enlarge the meaning and scope of the study of civics in such a way as to involve: (1) empha- sis on the commoner elements of social and civic activity in community life; (2) emphasis on the importance of developing tendencies to act and attitudes toward social welfare rather than on mere knowledge of the machinery of government; (3) the extension of the field of civics so as to include the informal activities of social-civic life as well as the more formal political activities; (4) the "vitalizatiori" of civics by emphasizing in the beginning those forms of social-civic activity with which the secondary-school pupil is brought into intimate and immediate contact. 243. The aims and values of civics. The values of the study of civics are to be interpreted in terms of its contribu- tions to the social-civic aim of secondary education prima- rily. Here are involved: (1) the attainment on the part of the pupil of a knowledge of social-civic relations and insti- tutions, their character, and place in social organization; (2) the development in the pupil of a sense of social-civic responsibility; (3) the development in the pupil of attitudes and tendencies to act in conformance with desirable ideals of social-civic activity. The mere attainment of a knowledge of our social-civic organization or even the development in the pupil of a sense of civic responsibility and ideals of civic conduct is not sufficient. Unless such knowledge, such a sense of social responsibility, such civic ideals, are trans- lated into forms of behavior and result in proper civic action, the values of the study of civics cannot be attained. Here, more than in the case of most studies in the secondary school, direct values are dominant and no accumulation of THE PLACE OF SOCIAL SCIENCES 561 information concerning the functions of government or the relation of the individual to government can take the place of the development of social attitudes and tendencies to act. It is unfortunate that the aims of the study of civics are frequently stated in terms of knowledge and that the teach- ing of civics so frequently results only in the inculcation of civic information. Thus the Committee on the Teaching of Government of the American Political Science Associa- tion unfortunately puts the cart before the horse in its statement of the aims of civic instruction : l The prime purposes of a study of civic relations are so obvious as to require little in the way of discussion. They may be summa- rized thus: 1. To awaken a knowledge of the fact that the citizen is in a social .environment whose laws bind him for his own good. 2. To acquaint the citizen with the forms of organization and methods of administration of government in its several depart- ments. These objects it is believed can be better attained if the school begins to aid the young citizen not only to think in terms of society but also to translate civic thought into action. That the study of civics in the past has tended to result in information rather than in behavior is due in large part to the fact that civics has commonly been taught as a study of the broader functions of National and State government and has seldom touched the commoner activities of indi- viduals in community life wherein the actual behavior of pupil-citizens in civic affairs can be directly affected. Modern civics by dealing first with the civic activities which intimately touch the young citizen even as a pupil in the school affords greater opportunity to develop actual habits of behavior in civic affairs. This is one of the prime advantages of "community civics." 1 American Political Science Association, Committee on the Teaching of Government, Report, p. 27. 562 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION 244. The scope and function of " community civics." Civics as heretofore presented in the American secondary school has proved comparatively fruitless for a number of reasons: (1) because it has been taught as an abstract science of government; (2) because it has been limited to the larger aspects of National and State government; (3) because it has been taught commonly in the last grade of the secondary school after the majority of pupils have left school; (4) be- cause it has neglected to train pupil-citizens in their imme- diate community responsibilities, both formal and informal. Community civics is designed to remedy those defects. Community civics takes its name, not from any restric- tion of its scope to the smaller community, — village, town, or city, — but from the fact that the social environment of the pupil is conceived as opened up to him through a series of successively enlarged communities or spheres of civic life — family, neighborhood, town, county, State, Nation, Humanity — and that the series of his social-civic contacts or experiences begins with the smaller unit. The aims of community civics are the same as those men- tioned above. They may be stated specifically in the terms of the Committee on Social Studies of the Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary Education : x (a) Significance of the term " community." Community civics lays emphasis upon the local community because (1) it is the com- munity with which every citizen, especially the child, comes into most intimate relations, and which is always in the foreground of experience; (2) it is easier for the child, as for any citizen, to realize his membership in the local community, to feel a sense of personal responsibility for it, and to enter, into actual cooperation with it, than is the case with the National community. 1 The Teaching of Community Civics, Bureau of Education Bulletin (1915), no. 23, pp. 11-12. The quotation given was taken from the Report of the Committee on Social Studies of the Commission on the Reorganization of Sec- ondary Education, Bureau of Education Bulletin (1916), no. 28, pp. 22-23. THE PLACE OF SOCIAL SCIENCES 563 But our Nation and our State are communities, as well as our city or village, and a child is a citizen of the larger as of the smaller community. The significance of the term "community civics" does not lie in its geographical implications, but in its implications of community relations, of a community of interests. ... It is a question of point of view, and community civics applies this point of view to the study of the National community as well as to the study of the local community. (b) Aims of community civics. The aim of community civics is to help the child to know his community — • not merely a lot of facts about it, but the meaning of his community life, what it does for him, and how it does it, what the community has a right to expect from him, and how he may fulfill his obligation, meanwhile cultivating in him the essential qualities and habits of good citi- zenship. More specifically this aim is analyzed as follows: To accomplish its part in training for citizenship, community civics should aim primarily to lead the pupil (1) to see the impor- tance and significance of the elements of community welfare in their relations to himself and to the communities of which he is a member; (2) to know the social agencies, governmental and volun- tary, that exist to secure these elements of community welfare; (3) to recognize his civic obligations, present and future, and to respond to them by appropriate action. Civics, conceived from this viewpoint, should prove a much more efficacious instrument of education in the sec- ondary school than the civics which has hitherto been taught as an appendage to history. It should be clear that the val- ues of such a study are universal and direct. It is imperative therefore, that community civics should be studied by everj pupil in the secondary school. It should be clear also that if the study is to produce its greatest values it should not be relegated to the later grades of the school but should be a prominent study in the junior high school before pupils begin to leave school in large numbers. 245. Economics as a study in the program. The study of economics early found some place in the program of the 564 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION public secondary school. Thus " political philosophy " was prescribed for study in the English Classical (High) School of Boston in 1821 and in Massachusetts " political economy " was required by law to be taught in all larger high schools from 1857 to 1898. Despite its early beginning, however, economics has always occupied a precarious position in the program of the secondary school. When taught it was almost invariably presented in the form of a logically organ- ized science little suited to the needs and capacities of most high-school pupils. Only within the past few years has any attempt been made to organize and teach economic princi- ples in the secondary school in a manner at all adapted to the maturity and capacity of the pupils. It is clear that the activities of modern industrial and social life in America call for some acquaintance with the common and fundamental principles of economics on the part of every individual. It is clear also that the average man or woman at present is lamentably ignorant of the simplest laws of economics which play such an important part in our social organization. Some provision must be made to meet the apparent need. Some of the necessary economic knowledges can be secured incidentally through the study of geography, history, civics, and other subjects in the elementary and secondary schools. Incidental study of that sort is, however, insufficient. The fact must be faced that large numbers of boys and girls are constantly going forth from the school into the world of industry where they must deal with problems social and industrial which call for a working knowledge of common economic princi- ples. The growing social and political importance of eco- nomic problems, the increasing complexity of governmental- industrial relations, the changing relations of capital and labor, of employee and employer, the development of labor organizations, emphasize the need for such instruction at THE PLACE OF SOCIAL SCIENCES 565 the present time. Unless we are to trust to the influence of demagogues and exploiters of industry some provision must be made in the school for this imminent need. Common practice relegates all direct instruction in eco- nomics to the college or other higher institution. Doubtless the more mature the student the more readily he may un- derstand the principles of economics and the more compre- hensive may be his grasp of that science. Hence it is com- monly urged that secondary-school pupils are incapable of understanding the principles of economic laws. Such an argument is for the most part based on the conception of economics as a logically organized and complete science. For the study of economics in this sense there is no place in the secondary school. However, many important princi- ples and problems of economics are readily understood and eagerly studied by pupils of secondary-school age. An important distinction should be made between a philosophic study of economics as a logically organized science and a " practical " study of certain of its principles and problems as involved in the activities of " the common man." The philosophic study of economics belongs to higher education. The " practical " study of economic elements has a legitimate place in the program of the secondary school. Either as a separate subject or as an important part of such a composite subject as that considered in the following section, the study of the commoner principles of economics has a legi- timate and important place in the program of secondary education. 246. The study of " Problems of American Democracy." The Committee on Social Studies has recommended the study of "Problems of American Democracy, Economic, Social, Political " as a culminating course of social study in the last year of the high school, with the purpose of giving a more definite, comprehensive, 566 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION and deeper knowledge of some of the vital problems of social life, and thus of securing a more intelligent and active citizen- ship.1 Two considerations led the committee to make this recom- mendation: (1) the difficulty of providing for separate in- struction in the many social studies which are claimants for a position in the program of the secondary school; e.g., economics, sociology, law, politics, etc. ; (2) the fact that in actual life the individual faces problems or conditions in which the principles of a number of social sciences are inex- tricably related. The committee summarizes its reasons for proposing such a course as follows: 2 (1) It is impracticable to include in the high-school program a comprehensive course in each of the social sciences. And yet it is unjust to the pupil that his knowledge of social facts and laws should be limited to the field of any one of them, however impor- tant that one may be. (2) The purposes of secondary education and not the intrinsic value of any particular body of knowledge should be the determin- ing consideration. From the standpoint of the purposes of second- ary education, it is far less important that the adolescent youth should acquire a comprehensive knowledge of any or all of the social sciences than it is that he should be given experience and practice in the observation of social phenomena as he encounters them; that he should be brought to understand that every social problem is many-sided and complex; and that he should acquire the habit of forming social judgments only on the basis of dispas- sionate consideration of all the facts available. This, the commit- tee believes, can best be accomplished by dealing with actual situations as they occur and by drafting into service the materials of all the social sciences as occasion demands for a thorough under- standing of the situations in question. (3) The principles upon which such a course is based are the same as those which have been successfully applied in community civics, sociology, and even history. 1 Report of the Committee, op. cit., pp. 52 ff. 2 Ibid., p. 56. THE PLACE OF SOCIAL SCIENCES 567 It will be seen from the recommendations of the commit- tee that the organization of the course proposed follows out the ideas dominant in the recommendations for courses in civics, namely that the study should be organized not in terms of the demands of the subject or subjects as logically arranged abstract sciences but in terms of the activities in which individuals participate. The proposal of the commit- tee is worthy of adoption. 247. Criticism of social studies as now organized. In the light of the preceding discussion it would appear that several important criticisms may be made concerning the economy of the social sciences in the secondary school as at present organized. Among these may be emphasized the following: (1) The values of the study of the social sciences in the secondary school have always suffered from the tendency to organize their materials and determine content and method with reference to the organization of the subjects as logical sciences rather than with reference to the needs and capacities of the pupils and with respect to the situations in life in which they may use them. The conception of his- tory from the historian's standpoint rather than from the standpoint of its use as a subject of study in the secondary school has in most cases led to an organization of material and a determination of teaching methods ill-suited to the attainment of the potential values of that subject. Similar results have come from the conception that "civil govern- ment" and "political economy" should be taught as logi- cally organized sciences. (2) In the study of history attention has been given almost exclusively to military and political events to the neglect of important events of social, intellectual, and economic importance. The modern development of the sociological conception of history emphasizes the impor- tance of historical material previously neglected. While it 568 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION is "a still unsolved problem ... to determine what condi- tions and institutions shall be given the preference, consid- ering the capacity of the students on the one hand, and the limitations of time on the other," it is nevertheless note- worthy that attention is at present being directed toward other elements in history than wars, kings, major matters of national development, and the like. (3) In spite of the acceptance of a theory that the study of the past should aid in an understanding of the present, the teaching of history in the past has signally failed to relate historical events to the present and future needs of the pupils. The ideal history for each of us would be those facts of past human experience to which we should have recourse oftenest in our endeavors to understand ourselves and our fellows. No one account would meet the needs of all, but all would agree that much of what now passes for the elements of history meet the needs of none. . . . No one questions the inalienable right of the historian to interest himself in any phase of the past that he chooses. It is only to be wished that a greater number of historians has greater skill in hitting upon those phases of the past which serve us best in understanding the most vital problems of the present.1 (4) In the past the study of civics has been subordinated to the study of history. For this there can be no justifica- tion and modern tendencies to afford civics its proper place in the secondary-school program deserve universal support. (5) In the past, and in most cases at present, the tendencj is to limit the study of civics to the formal study of the ma- chinery of government. If the study of civics is to be made effective its field must be broadened so as to include the study of the commoner affairs of social-civic activity. (6) The practice, though lessening still dominant, of post- 1 Robinson, J. H., "The New History," Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, vol. L, pp. 189-90. THE PLACE OF SOCIAL SCIENCES 569 poning the study of American history, and particularly civ- ics, to the later part of the secondary-school course, is very faulty. Such postponement means that two thirds of the pupils entering the high-school course can never receive the necessary benefits of the study of those subjects. The grow- ing practice of offering civics in the earlier years of the secondary school is to be encouraged. (7) In many secondary schools at the present time it is possible for pupils to pass through the entire course without ever coming into contact with the social sciences. If the values of the study of the social sciences are rightly con- ceived to be universal and certain, not limited or contingent, it must be recognized that some contact with the social studies should be provided for every pupil in the school. (8) The study of social sciences other than history and civics is all but neglected in the American secondary school. Such neglect cannot be justified. It must be recognized, however, that the study of social phenomena as abstract and logically organized sciences has no place in the second- ary-school program. The correct approach is indicated by the modern tendencies to be found in community civics and is such a course as that proposed in Problems of American Democracy. • PROBLEMS FOR FURTHER CONSIDERATION 1. What are the arguments for and against the study of "history" by institutions rather than by periods? (Cf. Seeley, J. R., Method* of Teaching History.) 4 2. What are the arguments for and against the introduction of a course in "The Study of Nations"? (Cf. Kingsley, C. D., School and Society, vol. in, pp. 37-41.) 3. What are the arguments for and against a requirement of some social study by every pupil in each grade of the secondary school? 4. What differences should be made in the social studies of different groups of pupils in the secondary school? 5. Trace the development of social studies in the program of the second- ary school. • 570 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION 6. Compare the place of social studies in the secondary schools of America, Germany, and France. 7. For any high school or any group of high schools determine the actual amount of social studies engaged in by members of any " class " through- out the course. Consider those who leave school as well as those whc remain throughout the course. 8. Outline a series of problems of topics which would properly find place in a course of "Problems of American Democracy." (Cf. Report of the Committee on Social Studies of the Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary Education, .pp. 52-56.) 9. To what extent would it be possible to organize history teaching on the form of "problem-solving" exercises? (Cf. Parker, S. C., Methods of Teaching in High Schools, p. 174 Jf. ; Keatinge, M. W., Studies in the Teaching of History.) 10. Compare several different textbooks in American history with respect to emphasis on political matters, institutional development, economic changes, social changes, military matters, intellectual matters, etc. 11. Compare textbooks in Civics with reference to the amount of attention devoted to various topics. 12. Trace the requirements in social studies for college admission. SELECTED REFERENCES • Allen, J. W., The Place of History in Education, especially pp. 156-79. American Historical Association, Committee of Seven, Report on the Study of History in Schools (1898). (Published by The Macmillan Company.) American Historical Association, Committee of Eight, Report on the Study of History in Elementary Schools (1909). (Published by Charles Scrib- ner's Sons.) American Historical Association, Committee of Five, Report on the Study of History in Secondary Schools (1911). (Published by The Macmillan Company.) American Political Science Association, Committee of Five, Report on Instruction in American Government in Secondary Schools, Proceedings of the Association (1908), vol. v, pp. 218-57. American Political Science Association, Report of the CommiHce on Instruc- tion, The Teaching of Government (1916), especially pp. 1-134. (Published by The Macmillan Company.) . Bourne, H. E., The Teaching of History and Civics in the Elementary and Secondary Schools, especially pp. 77-105. Hall, G. S., Educational Problems, vol. n, pp. 667-82. Haynes, J., Economics in Secondary Schools. Hill, M., The Teaching of Civics. Hinsdale, B. A., How to Study and Teach History, pp. 1-26. Johnson, H., Tlic Teaching of History, pp. 55-83. THE PLACE OF SOCIAL SCIENCES 571 Judd, C. H., Psychology of High-School Subjects, chap. xvi. Keatinge, M. W., Studies in the Teaching of History, especially pp. 1-95. Kingsley, C. D., and Others, The Teaching of Community Civics, Bureau of Education Bulletin (1915), no. 23. Kingsley, C. D., "The Study of Nations," School and Society, vol. m, pp. 37-41. National Education Association, Committee of Ten, Report on Secondary Studies, pp. 162-185. (Bureau of Education edition: also published by The American Book Company.) National Education Association, Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary Education, Report of the Committee on Social Studies in Secondary Education, Bureau of Education Bulletin (1916), no. 18. New England History Teachers' Association, Outline for the Study of Ameri- can Civil Government in Secondary Schools (1910). (Published by The Macmillan Company.) Robinson, J. H., The New History. Russell, W. F., "The Entrance of History into the Curriculum of the Sec- ondary School," The History Teacher's Magazine, vol. v, pp. 313 Jf. Salmon, L. M., "Some Principles in the Teaching of History," First Yearbook of the National Society for the Scientific Study of Education, especially chaps, n-vi. Seeley, J. R., Methods of Teaching History, Pedagogical Library, vol. I. Snedden, D., Problems of Secondary Education, chaps, xvi-xvn. Extended bibliography: American Political Science Association, Report of the Committee on Instruction, The Teaching of Government, pp. 111./. CHAPTER XVII THE PLACE OF PRACTICAL AND VOCATIONAL ARTS IN THE PROGRAM I. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 248. Historical position of the practical arts. While the most noteworthy development of the practical and voca- tional arts in the program of the secondary school has taken place within the pas^ decade, some beginnings of its develop- ment were to be fouiid as early as the beginning of the acad- emy movement and were not lacking in the early high- school movement. In its beginning the public high school was characterized by attempts to provide secondary educa- tion for those who were not to receive a college education and there was a real intent on the part of its founders and advocates to provide suitable subject-matter for such boys and girls. Thus in the first high school established, the English Classical (High) School of Boston, it was designed to provide an education for boys which should serve as a foundation for eminence in their professions, "whether mercantile or mechanical." In the early high schools sur- veying and navigation were taught as early as 1821, book- keeping by 1823, "commerce" before 1838, stenography as early as 1849, and sewing as early as 1840. It must be recog- nized, however, that little support was given to such studies and that, even in the case of the few practical subjects receiving a measure of support, the instruction was extremely Formal and detached from practical or vocational applica- tion. During the last quarter of the nineteenth century increased attention was paid to the clerical or commercial PRACTICAL AND VOCATIONAL ARTS 573 arts, to manual arts, and to the somewhat higher technical arts of industry. Provision for these arts, however, was by no means universal, and in the majority of schools where such studies were provided instruction failed lamentably to fulfill its purpose. Thus in most cases "manual training" took the direction first of general discipline, then of "manual expression," rather than vocational efficiency, and technical education was soon restricted in most high schools to the preparation of boys for entrance to the technical college. Of the vocational subjects the clerical or "commercial" alone had made noticeable headway by the end of the nine- teenth century. About the beginning of the twentieth century a number of important factors began to receive attention and the recog- nition of their importance has led to a revised conception of the place of practical and vocational arts in the program of the secondary school. Prominent among such factors were recognized the following: (1) the relative ineffectiveness of the formalized education already provided for the practical arts; (2) the changed character of the secondary-school population; (3) the importance of retardation and elimina- tion and the needs of boys and girls who leave school at an early age or stage; (4) the changes which have taken place in other social agencies which formerly- provided valuable forms of practical and vocational training; (5) the demands of modern occupational life. Recognition of those and other factors has revolutionized conceptions of the place of the practical and vocational arts in the secondary school and has tended to produce the following results: (a) the closer articulation with the actual conditions of workaday life of such practical arts as had already found some place in the program; (6) the acceptance of the vocational aim, or at least the applied aim, as the dominant element determin- ing the place and purpose of practical arts in the program; 574 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION (c) an extension of the number and scope of practical and vo- cational arts in the secondary school; (d) a revision of the aims, values, and methods of almost all subjects of study in the school and attempts to establish their relations to practical life. 249. Present status in the program. As far as practical and vocational arts in the secondary school are concerned the present cannot be described otherwise than as a period of experimentation, characterized by endeavors to put into practical operation the conceptions outlined in the preced- ing paragraph. In the majority of public secondary schools little attempt has been made to meet imperative demands for the organization of practical and vocational arts training either in the secondary school proper or through the second- ary school in cooperation with other agencies. In schools where such organization has been attempted the recency of those attempts has permitted the development of few settled policies or conditions. The field of these arts is obvi- ously the field where differentiated education is dominant and, therefore, the field where the greatest amount of varia- tion is to be expected. At present the majority of public secondary schools in the more progressive communities provide in some degree for certain domestic arts instruction (at least courses in sewing and cooking) and for commercial education (at least in the clerical branches). Far less provision has as yet been made for courses in industrial and agricultural arts, least of all in the former. In the entire field of practical and vocational arts instruction in the school the United States has followed far in the rear of more progressive countries in Europe. However, recent activity by cities, States, and by the Federal Government bids fair to inaugurate a new era for practical and vocational education throughout the country. In par- ticular the federal Smith-Hughes Act, passed by Congress in PRACTICAL AND VOCATIONAL ARTS 575 February, 1917, must give great impetus to that, form of education through the encouragement provided by the appropriation of large sums of money to the several States for the payment of the salaries of teachers, supervisors, and directors of agricultural subjects, the salaries of teachers of trade, home economics, and industrial subjects, and for the training of such teachers, supervisors, and directors. 250. Values of the practical and vocational arts. The fundamental values of the practical and vocational arts in the program of the secondary school are to be determined, of course, in terms of their relation to the economic-voca- tional aim of secondary education. Those values are direct and specific. In Chapter IV it was shown that little more than one third of those pupils who enter the first grade of the elementary school reach the first grade of the four-year high school; that of those entering the high school about one third leave before the beginning of the second year, about one half leave before the beginning of the third year, two thirds before the beginning of the fourth year; and that of those who enter the seventh grade of the school system about one quarter leave before the eighth grade, one third to one half before the ninth grade, two thirds before the tenth grade, three quarters before the eleventh grade, and nearly four fifths before the twelfth grade.1 Boys and girls who leave school before the completion of the secondary- school course for the most part enter commercial, industrial, agricultural, and household pursuits. Throughout their lives the economic activities in which they engage will be found in those fields. In 1913 approximately a million and a half boys and girls were enrolled in the seventh grade of the public schools of the United States. Of that number prob- ably 600,000 left school by 1916 and many more will leave school before the end of the secondary school course for that 1 C!. Tables LV. LVI, LVII. 576 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION " class " in 1919. It is probable that about one half of those who will complete the secondary-school course in 1919 will enter commercial, industrial, agricultural, and household pursuits, so that in all probability about 1,300,000 boys and girls already have entered or will enter those occupa- tions from that group of children who were in the seventh grade of the schools in 1913. A moderate estimate would place the number of boys and girls leaving school from grades above the sixth grade at more than one million an- nually. Compared with this the number of those complet- ing the secondary -school course and entering other pursuits in life immediately or later is insignificant. By far the greatest proportion of those leaving school before the com- pletion of the course will engage in practical-arts pursuits. For those pupils instruction in the practical-arts subjects of a vocational purpose and character is necessary and legitimate. 251. Conditions emphasizing practical and vocational arts. Numerous factors have combined to emphasize the values and the place of the practical and vocational arts in the secondary-school program at the present time. All have been considered at some length in preceding sections of this book. They may be summarized briefly here. (1) Developments in educational theory : Three important developments in educational theory affect the present situa- tion as far as the practical arts are concerned, (a) Much of the failure properly to provide for practical and vocational education during the nineteenth century was due to a belief that " general abilities " suitable for all activities of life could be gained through the intensive study of a few sub- jects. Thus the founders of the English Classical (High) School of Boston in 1821 desired to provide an education " calculated to bring the powers of the mind into operation " and to " serve as a foundation for eminence in his (the PRACTICAL AND VOCATIONAL ARTS 577 pupil's) profession, whether mercantile or mechanical." Thus the manual training movement ran on the rocks of a belief in the possibility of developing " general manual dex- terity" and the accompanying mental powers. Modern psychological and educational theory has greatly restricted the application of any such theory and placed much greater emphasis on specific training. (6) Modern educational theory, by determining the values and aims of subject- matter in the secondary school in terms of the contributions made to the activities in which the individual will partici- pate, has greatly increased the attention to be paid to sub- jects contributing to the attainment of the economic-voca- tional aim. (c) Recognition of the existence, character, and distribution of individual differences in the capacities, inter- ests, and probable future activities of pupils, and recogni- tion of the differentiated needs of society have given in- creased impetus to the movement to provide a wide range of differentiated studies in the program to meet the needs both of pupils and of society. (2} Developments in the secondary-school population : Within the past quarter of a century noteworthy changes have taken place in the secondary-school population. In numbers the secondary-school population has increased from 297,894 pupils (one for every 210 of total population in 1889-1890) to 1,373,661 pupils (one for every 73 of the estimated total population in 1914-1915). In character the secondary-school population has changed from a roughly homogeneous group of those designed for the higher walks of life to a highly heterogeneous group of pupils destined to enter all sorts of occupations. (3) Developments in other social institutions : In Chapter IX a somewhat detailed though brief consideration was given to the changes which have taken place in other social institutions tending to decrease the stimuli and opportuni- 578 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION ties previously afforded for vocational training, and at the same time to demand a higher degree of vocational efficiency. Little further need here be said otherwise than to repeat that the occupations themselves, home and community life, and other agencies have lost many stimuli and opportuni- ties for vocational training which they will probably never recover. Thus the responsibility has been forced on the school for training previously provided more or less ade- quately by other social agencies. 252. The field of vocational education. Practical-arts and vocational education in the secondary school must be determined by the conditions in the economic world which the pupils will later enter. Some conception of the range, variety, and importance of various occupations may be gained from the occupation statistics presented in the fourth volume of the Thirteenth Census Report (1910). The occu- pations there listed are classified under their main divisions in the following table : TABLE CXXXIX. NUMBER AND PROPORTION OF PERSONS IN THE GENERAL DIVISIONS OF OCCUPATIONS (1910) * Occupations Numbers Per cents All Male Female All Male Female Agriculture, etc 12,659,203 964,824 10,658,881 2,637,671 3,614,670 459,291 1,663,569 3,772,174 1,737,053 10,851,702 963,730 8,837,901 2,531,075 3,146,582 445,733 929,684 1,241,328 1,143,829 1,807,501 1,094 1,820,980 106.596 468,088 13,558 733,885 2,530,846 593,224 33.2 2.5 27.9 6.9 9.5 1.2 4.4 9.9 4.6 36.1 3.2 29.4 8.4 10.5 1.5 3.1 4.1 3.8 22.4 0.1 22.5 1.3 5.8 0.2 9.1 31.3 7.3 Manufacturing, mechanical in- dustry Trade Professional service Domestic and personal service. . Clerical occupations Total persons engaged 38,167,336 30,091,564 8,075,772 100.0 100.0 100.0 * Thirteenth Census Report (1910), vol. iv, p. 40. t " Not elsewhere classified." PRACTICAL AND VOCATIONAL ARTS 579 According to this table the general divisions of occupa- tions engaging as large a proportion as five per cent of men or women are as follows: men — agriculture (36.1 per cent), manufacturing and mechanical industry (29.4 per cent), transportation (8.4 per cent), trade (10.5 per cent); women • — agriculture (22.4 per cent), manufacturing and mechani- cal industry (22.5 per cent), trade (5.8 per cent), profes- sional service (9.1 per cent, of which more than two thirds are teachers), domestic and personal service (31.3 per cent), clerical occupations (7.3 per cent). From this list some occu- pations may be eliminated as far as general provision for vocational education in the secondary school is concerned. Thus transportation engages the activity of more than two and one half million men, but far more than one half of that number are unskilled laborers. Thus also professional service engages 733,885 women, but of that number 478,027 are school-teachers for whom higher professional education is necessary. Hence the occupations engaging the largest number of men or women and suitable for consideration in connection with vocational education in the secondary school are agriculture, manufacturing and mechanical in- dustry, trade, domestic service, and clerical occupations. 253. Relative importance of various occupations.1 Varia- tion in the values of various vocational subjects is obviously a very important factor affected extensively by geographi- cal considerations. This is noticeable not only for smaller districts but also for States and even larger geographic divi- sions. Thus in Mississippi more than three quarters of all workers are engaged in agriculture; in Massachusetts less than five per cent. In Rhode Island more than one half are engaged in manufacturing and mechanical industries; in Mississippi less than eight per cent. In Nevada more than 1 All figures in this section are taken from p. 45 of the fourth volume of the Thirteenth Census Report (1910). 580 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION one fifth are engaged in the extraction of minerals; in Missis- sippi less than one tenth of one per cent. In California about fourteen per cent are engaged in trade; in South Carolina about three per cent. For geographic divisions of the coun- try the figures are as follows: TABLE CXL. PERCENTAGES OP WORKERS IN VARIOUS OCCUPATIONS (1910) * .2 • | |3 ! , | •§ 1 .1? 8 8 1 lg 1 1 e .i-- 1 1 o § 2 Geographic Division 1 1 li. | I .0 '•f-a 1 £ 1 § 1'JS | "| S "I" 11 "*! eq ^ *•• ^ S< Q o (per (per (per (per (per (per (per (per (per cent) cent) cent) cent) cent) cent) cent) cent) cent) New England 10.4 0.3 49.1 6.5 10.6 1 7 4 8 10 7 5 9 Middle Atlantic 10.0 4.2 40.6 8.0 12.0 1.4 4.9 11.8 7.1 East North Central... 25.6 2.6 33.2 7.6 10.6 1.1 4.8 9.2 5.3 West North Central... 41.2 1.8 20 0 7.8 10.4 1.1 5.2 8.5 3.9 South Atlantic 51.4 1.8 18.6 5.0 6.1 1.0 3.0 10.5 2.6 East South Central . . . 63.2 1.9 12.4 4.0 5.3 0.6 2.6 8.4 1.7 West South Central... 60.1 0.7 12.6 5.2 7.0 0.8 3.3 8.1 2.1 Mountain 32.4 9.4 19.5 10.3 8.7 1.7 5.2 9.1 3.6 Pacific 22.6 2.4 27.2 10.3 12.6 2.0 6.0 11.3 5.5 UNITED STATES 33.2 2.5 27.9 6.9 9.5 1.2 4.4 9.9 4.6 * Thirteenth Census Report (1910), vol. iv, pp. 44-15. This geographic variation in economic activities gives rise to one of the most important problems of vocational education, namely, the problem of adapting it to local con- ditions as determined by the economic activity and the character of the population served. This problem is best considered in connection with the principles governing the selection of vocational subjects discussed in the following section. 254. Principles governing selection. The wide range and variety of vocational fields and differing local conditions PRACTICAL AND VOCATIONAL ARTS 58 emphasize the factor of selection in determining the char- acter of vocational education in any locality. Here a num- ber of important principles are involved. (1) Only those occupations which afford opportunity for a relatively large number of skilled workers should be repre- sented by vocational subjects in the secondary school. The economics of secondary-school administration and the law of demand and supply alike negate or affirm the advisability of introducing various vocational subjects into the school. (2) Only those occupations which have a fairly steady and general demand for skilled workers should be repre- sented by related vocational subjects in the secondary school. No school can afford to introduce vocational sub- jects when the occupations for which they prepare vary widely in the rate of demand for workers thus prepared. (3) Only those occupations which offer opportunity for lengthy employment should be represented by related vo- cational subjects in the secondary school. Society cannot afford to provide expensive vocational education for occu- pations wherein the worker's usefulness is relatively short as measured by his employment in that occupation. (4) Only those occupations which offer somewhat pro- gressively increased returns to the individual and to society as the result of progressively increased skill or knowledge should be represented by related vocational subjects in the secondary school. Education in the school cannot assist in the exploitation of the worker by industry. If our investigation of this question [Are skilled processes ahead?] shows that the employment is of the "blind-alley" type, in which two or three weeks, or even less, suffices to master all the technical training and skill that can be employed in the work, — which is true of about eighty-five per cent of the paper-box-making indus- try and of about an equal percentage of the machine work in shirt and collar factories, — it is evident that no trade training at public 582 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION expense should be provided. If the advanced processes of the work are so simple in nature that all the knowledge and skill needed can be picked up in the trade itself with what little assistance can be given by a foreman, which is possible in plants working on white goods, in power sewing, straw-hat sewing, and underwear knitting, it is then inadvisable to use public funds for training workers to enter that industry.1 (5) Local or sectional occupations which meet the de- mands suggested above should primarily be represented by related vocational subjects in the secondary school. It is to be noted, however, that dominant local occupations con- stitute but one of two important factors to be considered. The other factor is the factor of individual differences in capacities and aptitudes in the secondary-school population as related to vocational activities. That a boy or girl is born on a farm or in a rural community is no guarantee whatever that he or she is well fitted to engage in agriculture or that agricultural education is well fitted to his aptitudes and interests. Where a sufficiently large group of pupils is found interested and capable in any single occupation, that occupation should be represented by its related vocational subjects in the school whenever economically possible. Thus, from the viewpoint of desirability, industrial subjects have their place in a dominantly rural community and agri- cultural subjects have their place in an industrial community. From the viewpoint of practicability (depending on numbers and tastes), such non-local vocations will be represented in few schools. The two factors of local needs and individual needs must always clash to some extent, and for this there is no remedy other than the establishment of special sec- tional (e.g., State or county) vocational schools or the de- velopment of part-time cooperative education. 1 Smith, H. B., Establishing Industrial Schools, p. 15. For this whole matter see his excellent chapter I. f PRACTICAL AND VOCATIONAL ARTS 583 II. CLERICAL AND COMMERCIAL SUBJECTS 255. The scope of clerical and commercial education. The overlapping of clerical and commercial occupations has led to two errors in the administration of clerical and com- mercial education in the secondary school: (1) the error of confining clerical education to preparation for business life, and (2) the error of restricting commercial education to the clerical arts in the majority of schools. The latter is by far the more serious error. So-called "commercial courses" are commonly restricted to subjects to which tradition has at- tached the name "commercial subjects" — stenography, typewriting, bookkeeping, "business arithmetic" — together with some elements of office and business practice. In the larger schools, particularly in special "commercial schools," are frequently found forms of instruction in foreign lan- guages (German, French, and Spanish) adapted to supposed or real commercial needs, special types of science instruction adapted to the same ends, some instruction in design and related arts with application to commercial activities, ele- mentary commercial law, economic or industrial history, economics, etc. It will be noted that most of those courses — the courses forming the backbone of " commercial education " — are almost limited to instruction in the clerical arts or "office" activities and to certain general knowledges, little or no provision being made for other important forms of commercial activity. This appears to be wrong for reasons implied in the following considerations: (1) office work and clerical occupations in general engage but a relatively small proportion of strictly commercial workers, probably not more than about fifteen per cent of all business employees.1 On the other hand, other business activities engage a relatively 1 Thompson, F. V., Commercial Education in Public Secondary Schools, chap. vi. 584 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION large proportion of commercial workers, e.g., retail selling has been estimated to engage more than one third of all business employees. Clerical training is very unsatisfactory for such workers. (2) Those who leave school before the completion of the secondary-school course and who enter business in large numbers, for the most part engage in other phases of business activity than the clerical. Their needs are not well met by clerical courses. (3) Stenography and typewriting are passing more and more into the haqds of women or girls and at present a relatively small proportion of clerical positions emphasizing those subjects are occupied by men or boys. (4) Many clerical positions have little or nothing to do with strictly commercial work, e.g., civil-serv- ice positions. Recent theory bids fair to institute two important changes in the administration of clerical and commercial education in the secondary school: (a) by recognizing that not all clerical instruction is limited to commercial preparation; (6) by extending the scope of commercial education so as to include instruction dealing with merchandizing, selling, and store service. 256. Aims of clerical and commercial subjects. Mani- festly the primary aims and values of the study of clerical and commercial subjects in the secondary school are to be determined by their direct and specific contributions toward the attainment of the economic- vocational aim of secondary education. Clerical and commercial activities are obviously activities in which a large proportion of secondary-school pupils will later participate. If the theses formulated in Chapters IX and X of the book are sound it follows that the secondary school should provide preparation for those activ- ities of life in which the pupils will later engage and for which other social agencies do not provide adequate training. Clerical and commercial occupations are activities in which PRACTICAL AND VOCATIONAL ARTS 585 secondary-school pupils do later engage in large numbers. It remains to consider whether other social agencies, includ- ing those vocations themselves, provide adequate training. In Chapter IX it was shown that social institutions other than the school have tended to decrease the vocational stimuli and opportunities which they formerly afforded. As affecting the field of clerical and commercial education the following facts may be considered. (1) The demand for clerical efficiency has developed with great rapidity within the past few decades, especially in the non-commercial fields and those fields on the borderline between secretarial and business activities. (2) Within recent years the relatively simple organization of commercial activities has given way to a very complex form of organization; e.g., note the char- acter of business organization in the large department store and the large wholesale house. (3) Commercial competi- tion has developed tremendously, even to the extent of rami- fied international competition. (4) In recent years less and less opportunity has been offered for " learning the business " and apprenticeship has tended to disappear. (5) Greater sub-division of labor and increased specialization has per- meated the business field. (6) In constantly increasing pro- portions girls and women have engaged in commercial activities. (7) Home and community life have tended to afford less and less opportunity for commercial training. (8) Compulsory school-attendance laws and child labor laws have postponed the age at which children may enter com- mercial life: hence, (9) the school has taken the boy and girl out of business and thus prevented him* from securing even that amount of early commercial training which participa- tion in business might afford. These facts emphasize the value and necessity of adequate instruction in clerical and commercial subjects in the secondary school. The aims of clerical and commercial education in the 586 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION secondary school must be the development of direct and specific vocational abilities in the related activities of life in so far as they may be developed in the school. Any attempt to emphasize indirect values, e.g., " values for men- tal training," involve questionable psychological theories and are likely to diminish the primary vocational values which should be dominant. 257. The place of clerical arts in the program. Two rea- sons for the relatively successful provision of instruction in the clerical arts in the secondary school are probably to be found in the facts: (1) that those arts, while perhaps pre- dominantly commercial, have nevertheless spread to several related fields not primarily commercial or on the borderline between commerce and other fields, e.g., public service, the office of the physician, the lawyer, etc., and the factory office; (2) that certain of the clerical arts deal with abilities even less restricted in their applications, e.g., stenography, type- writing, bookkeeping, etc. The clerical arts, therefore, have somewhat less limited and less contingent values than some strictly commercial arts whose values are limited to com- mercial vocations and contingent on special activities. Recognition of the somewhat extended values of certain clerical arts has sometimes led to a much mistaken emphasis on the part of some writers and teachers. Thus importance appears to be attached to " mental discipline " wrongly by Moran: l Stenography, when properly taught and thoroughly mastered, has even greater value, considered from a purely educational stand- point. To become even a moderately successful stenographer one must have training along several lines, each of which has large educational value. These are as follows: (1) It compels one to 1 Moran, S. A., pp. 403-04 of Johnston, C. H. (Editor), High-School Education. Cf. Bartholomew, W: E., "Fundamental Aims in the Teaching of Bookkeeping," Proceedings of the National Education Association (1916), pp. 362-65. PRACTICAL AND VOCATIONAL ARTS 587 think quickly and accurately. It is of great value to any one to be thoroughly awakened mentally and to have acquired power to think clearly. (2) The scientific study and practice of stenography compels -the development of greater ability to hear things accu- rately. The inability of the average high school and college student to hear all that he should hear and hear 'it accurately is really appall- ing. Stenography, more than any other study, will very largely overcome this almost universal weakness. (3) Mastering the technic of memorizing is an especially important feature which re- sults from the thorough training of this subject. I do not know of any other subject which affords an equally valuable and specific training. (4) The most important mental training resulting directly from this study is the development of ability to concentrate the whole mind upon the work in hand. . . . Since the study of stenogra- phy is especially valuable in developing such power, it seems that there should be no question as to the advisability of introducing this subject in every high school, not only as a part of the com- mercial course, but also as a regularly disciplinary study. However far one may desire to extend the study of stenography or any other clerical art on the basis of its direct values, he certainly cannot be justified by modern psychological theory in making any such sweeping claims for the study of stenography or other clerical subject on the basis of such " disciplinary " values as those claimed by the writer above quoted. The problem of disciplinary values was discussed in Chapter XI. It cannot be considered here further than to point out that the theory of faculty psychology implied in the above quotation has long since been aban- doned by the psychologist. Where such important direct values manifestly exist it is folly to shift the instruction in clerical arts from the field of direct to indirect values. 258. Analysis of clerical occupations. Some conception of the relative importance of various occupations involving the clerical arts may be gained from the census figures for 1910. They are presented in the following table. 588 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION TABLE CXLI. CLERICAL OCCUPATIONS ACCORDING TO THE 1910 CENSUS* Occupations Total Male Female 105 127 96 325 8 802 50,785 48,495 2 290 18 595 13 980 4 615 35,747 33 850 1 897 486 700 299 545 187 155 720 498 597 833 122 665 80,353 78,192 2,161 640 115 519 641 120 504 108 035 96 748 11 287 10,866 4 274 6 592 97,169 92,474 4,695 316,693 53,378 263,315 Total 1,737,053 1,143,829 593,224 * Thirteenth Census Report (1910), vol. iv, p. 94. t "Except telegraph and telephone messengers." This classification presented in the census returns is in many ways very unsatisfactory, but serves at least to indi- cate the relative prominence of bookkeeping, stenography, and typewriting in occupational life, as well as the relative importance of " clerkship." Of special interest is the number of clerks — about 42 per cent of all engaged in clerical occu- pations, 52 per cent of all men and 21 per cent of all women engaged in those occupations. If to the numbers given be added clerks separately classified by the Census Bureau as " clerks in stores " the group of " clerks " assumes even greater importance. An analysis of their activities is needed as a basis for proper clerical instruction in the secondary school. 259. Non-clerical commercial subjects. As an introduc- tion to the consideration of non-clerical commercial subjects which are or should be in the program of studies of the sec- ondary school we may examine the analysis of business occupations made by the Census Bureau. PRACTICAL AND VOCATIONAL ARTS TABLE CXLII. TBADE OCCUPATIONS ACCORDING TO THE 1910 CENSUS * Occupations All Male Female Bankers, brokers, and money lenders 105,804 103 170 2 634 Clerks in store.it 387 183 275 589 111 594 Commercial travelers 163,620 161 027 2 593 Decorators, drapers, and window dressers 5 341 4 902 439 Deliverymen 229 619 229 469 150 Floorwalkers, foremen, and overseers 20 724 17 649 3 075 Inspectors, gaugers, and samplers 13,446 11 685 1 761 97 964 95 302 2 662 81 193 80 450 673 Laborers, porters and helpers in stores 102,333 98 169 4 164 29 708 29 435 273 22 362 21 352 1 010 Real estate agents and officials 125,862 122 935 2 927 Retail dealers 1,195,029 1,127,926 67,103 921 130 663 410 257 720 Undertakers 20,734 19,921 813 Wholesale dealers, importers, and exporters 51 048 50,123 925 Other pursuits (semi-skilled) 41,640 34,068 7,572 Total 3,614,670 3,146,582 468,083 * Thirteenth Centus Report (1910), vol. iv, p. 93. t "Many of the 'clerks' in stores evidently are ' salesmen and saleswomen.' " j Not otherwise specified. Of the business occupations here listed those engaging as large a proportion of men or women as five per cent are as follows: TABLE CXLIII§ Occupations All (per cent) Male (per cent) Female (per cent) 10.7 8.8 23.8 6.3 7.3 33.1 35.8 14.3 25.5 21.1 55.1 4.5 5.1 0.5 80.1 78.1 93.2 § Compiled from Table CXLII. Of particular interest here are the occupations of " clerks in stores," "salesmen and saleswomen" (the two groups are not clearly to be differentiated), and " retail dealers." Second- 590 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION ary education has in the past recognized preparation for those occupations in the most general way only, emphasiz- ing the clerical arts and " general business knowledge " sides of their activities. The arts of buying, selling, and handling merchandise have been all but neglected in the commercial education provided by the secondary school. Hence the emphasis placed at the present time by specialists in com- mercial education on " merchandizing, selling, and store service." Those specialists have, however, tended to over- emphasize occupations in large commercial organizations, such as department store occupations, at the expense of occupations in " small business." The fact that over thirty- three per cent of all business men and women (35.8 per cent of the male and 14.3 per cent of the female), exclusive of clerical employees, are "retail dealers " should serve to guard us against such possible overemphasis. The need of com- mercial education for the men and women who become " retail dealers " is indicated by the tremendous " business mortality" of that class — failures due in large part to the lack of the most elementary business knowledge and train- ing. 260. "General subjects" modified. Within the past few years the tendency has gradually developed to provide special forms of instruction in " general subjects " adapted to supposed or real commercial and clerical ends. In this category fall such studies as commercial English, commer- cial arithmetic, commercial or economic geography, indus- trial history, commercial German, French, and Spanish, commercial science, commercial design, commercial law, business economics, etc. The varying character of courses given the titles " commercial English," " commercial arithme- tic," etc., makes it impossible properly to evaluate them. Some are doubtless quite legitimately given a place in the program of studies. Others are of rather doubtful status or PRACTICAL AND VOCATIONAL ARTS 591 of questionable value in spite of the validity of some ele- ments involved. Thus courses in "commercial English" and "commercial" or "industrial" history have been much questioned for the secondary school. Of particular interest is the tendency found in some cases to substitute for commercial pupils courses in " commercial English " and " industrial history " for the courses in English and in social science provided for other pupils. Whatever argu- ments may be adduced for courses in " commercial English " and " commercial " or " industrial history " for commercial pupils, there can be no justification for allowing such voca- tional subjects to take the place of courses in English and social science designed primarily to attain the non-voca-- tional, i.e., the social-civic and the individualistic-a voca- tional, aims of secondary education. " Commercial English " and " industrial history," having the same ends in view as other commercial and clerical subjects, i.e., the attainment of vocational efficiency, must be placed in competition with them, not with subjects whose primary purposes have to do with the social-civic and individualistic-avocational aims. Of special interest too is the tendency which is becoming prominent to emphasize the commercial values of modern foreign languages. It is altogether probable that too much attention may be paid to such courses as " commercial Ger- man," "commercial French," or "commercial Spanish," to the detriment of more important forms of commercial educa- tion. It must be recognized that in this country peculiar con- ditions exist greatly limiting the commercial values of the study of foreign languages. (1) It must be recognized that, while American commerce and business have been brought into close contact with foreign peoples, the number of com- mercial positions affected is insignificant, and that the rela- tively small number of business positions offering oppor- tunity for, much less requiring, the use of a foreign language 592 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION makes an ability to use it relatively unimportant. (2) It must also be recognized that the heterogeneity of our Amer- ican population provides a relatively large number of bi- lingual men and women with whom it is impossible for the school-taught American boy or girl to compete in securing commercial positions calling for an ability to use a foreign language. For the majority of commercial pupils the direct values of the study of a foreign language are relatively insignificant. 261. Criticism of present commercial education. Provi- sion for commercial education which is or should be made in the secondary school affects three groups of subjects: '(1) clerical-commercial arts; (2) merchandising arts; (3) an- cillary subjects. (1) Clerical-commercial subjects: Better provision is made for these subjects than for any other group. Errors involve (a) the tendency to limit clerical instruction to business fields, and (6) the tendency to consider clerical instruction suitable for the majority of business occupations. (2) Merchandising subjects: Subjects falling under this category at present found in the secondary school are to be catalogued much as the snakes of Ireland or the ships of the Swiss navy — there are none. The point has been em- phasized sufficiently in preceding sections that provision for non-clerical business education is an imperative necessity demanded by modern business conditions and sound educa- tional theory. Until provision is made for such subjects commercial education in the secondary school must be far from adequate. (3} Ancillary subjects: The present tendency to adapt almost all the traditional subjects of the secondary-school program to commercial ends is equally dangerous for com- mercial-vocational education and for other forms of second- ary education. A careful re-analysis of the values of many PRACTICAL AND VOCATIONAL ARTS 593 subjects of study which have been given a commercial turn in some schools is necessary. It is probable that for the most part they will be found to be highly limited and highly contingent. III. INDUSTRIAL SUBJECTS 262. Meaning and scope of industrial education. Indus- try in its broadest sense may include practically all forms of economic activity. In its narrower sense it is restricted to those activities which involve the manipulation of raw materials and their conversion into finished products through manufacture and mechanical processes. Industrial education, therefore, in the corresponding narrower sense, is that division of education whose primary purpose is the development of industrial efficiency in manufacture and mechanical processes. Elementary education is concerned in an indirect way only with industrial education. The college or higher technical school is the field for higher technical training. The field of industrial education in the secondary school is, therefore, training for the development of vocational efficiency in those industrial activities between those limited to unskilled labor and those demanding a higher degree of technical knowledge and training than can be acquired in the secondary school. Until within the past few years industrial education in its proper form has been all but neglected in the American secondary school. It has been pointed out already that the manual training movement and the establishment of a few " technical high schools " failed to accomplish the real ends of industrial education, the former by taking the direction of " general discipline," " general manual dexterity," or " cul- ture," and the latter by becoming merely preparatory schools to higher technical colleges. Meanwhile European countries 594 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION established relatively effective education in the industrial arts and some beginning of real industrial education was made as the result of private initiative in this country. Slowly the movement toward industrial education has found its way to a limited extent into the public school system. Legislation providing for the establishment of industrial schools for boys and girls began in Massachusetts in 1906, followed by legislation in Wisconsin in 1907, and by legisla- tion in several other States later. Notwithstanding rather extensive development in educational theory and notwith- standing the somewhat comprehensive legislation provided in many States it cannot be said that the development of industrial education in the secondary school has as yet pro- ceeded far. Relatively few secondary schools at the present time offer any form of industrial education, and in still fewer secondary schools has anything like adequate provision been made for it. Much may be expected, however, in the near future from the passage of the Smith-Hughes Federal Law in 1917. 263. Conditions emphasizing industrial education. Many factors have combined to emphasize the need for industrial education in the secondary school in this country. They are in the main those factors outlined briefly above in this chapter under three heads: (1) developments in educational theory, (2) developments in the secondary-school population, and (3) developments in other social institutions. Certain specific factors, however, deserve special consideration here. (a) Modern psychological and educational theory postu- lates that " general education " is very inadequate prepara- tion for efficiency in industrial activity. (6) It likewise postu- lates that the values, character, and aims of instruction should be determined by the character of the activities in which pupils will later participate, (c) It further postulates that there are wide ranges of individual differences in the 595 vocational interests and aptitudes of secondary-school pupils, (d) Within the past three decades increasing large numbers of boys and girls destined for vocational activitj* in the industries have entered the secondary school, (e) Studies in retardation and elimination have shown that the majority of pupils entering the secondary school leave after one, two, or three years of secondary education. Such boys and girls enter the industries in large numbers. (/) Informal education in the home and community life has lost many of the stimuli and opportunities for industrial education. (g) The relative proportion of individuals engaged in indus- trial pursuits has gradually increased since 1880. l (h) The constantly increasing division of labor has tended to prevent those engaging in industrial activities from securing in industry itself broad training in the trades and crafts, (i) The development of the factory system of industry has removed many other stimuli and opportunities for industrial training, (j) The apprentice system which formerly afforded valuable industrial education has tended to disappear, only 118,964 apprentices being accounted for in the entire coun- try in the reports of the 1910 census. (&) With other changes in industrial organization the relations between employer and employee have radically changed with the result that the capitalist employer is concerned with the immediate eco- nomic productivity of the employee rather than with the broad training of the beginning employee. (1) International competition in industry has tended to demand a higher de- gree of industrial efficiency in this country. (TO) Changes in the parts played by abundant natural resources and in dustrial efficiency have created a demand for the increase of the latter to offset a relative decrease in the former, (n) The increased mobility of labor has tended to discourage attempts on the part of employers to train a body of broadly 1 Thirteenth Census Report (1910), vol. IV, p. 41. 596 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION expert workmen and workwomen who may leave his employ at any moment after he has gone to the expense of their industrial education, (o) Compulsory school-attendance laws and child-labor laws have removed children from indus- try where they could receive even such industrial training as industry provides, (p) The school has tended more and more to occupy boys and girls at ages when they formerly engaged in industrial activities. 264. Values and aims of industrial subjects. As in the case of all subjects of study whose primary aims and con- trolling purposes involve the development of vocational effi- ciency, the values of industrial subjects in the program of the secondary school are to be determined by their direct and specific contributions to the economic- vocational aim of sec- ondary education. It must be recognized that the prepara- tion of the worker is one of the necessary aims of secondary education. It must be recognized that a large proportion of secondary-school pupils will later engage in industrial oc- cupations. It must be recognized that other social agencies than the school, including the industries themselves, do not provide adequate training for those who participate in indus- trial activities. Recognition of those three facts renders imperative provision for industrial education in the second- ary school. It should be noted in this connection, however, that acceptance of the validity of claims for industrial sub- jects in the program of the secondary school does not ne- cessarily imply that those studies are to be conducted in the secondary-school building. The question whether the studies should be provided under school conditions in the secondary-school building or in the industries themselves by cooperation between the school authorities and industrial firms is a matter not of the secondary-school program but of organization and administration. It will be considered in Chapter XXI. PRACTICAL AND VOCATIONAL ARTS 597 265. Analysis of industrial occupations. As a basis for evaluation of some phases of industrial education in the secondary school we may consider the distribution of in- TABLE CXLIV. NUMBER OF PERSONS TEN YEARS OF AGE AND OVER ENGAGED IN PRINCIPAL MANUFACTURING AND MECHANI- CAL INDUSTRIES, CLASSIFIED BY SEX (1910)* Occupations Total Male Female 15,595 4,779 31 15 849 38 14,051 447,760 92 10 118,964 89,531 240,519 169,402 174,422 817,120 127,589 449,342 135,519 231,041 111,248 175,098 154,826 82,015 869,478 65,431 317,244 527,714 87,146 385,852 488,049 104,210 256,591 127,906 120,900 337,355 148.304 151,519 88,628 144,607 88,834 167,490 438,063 67,469 181,010 650,260 463,655 291,209 69,570 204,608 59,833 679,310 103,369 84,752 240,488 169,387 173,573 817,082 113,538 1,582 135,427 231,031 111,248 155,358 152,438 75,691 853,679 65,352 313,228 518,935 71,107 350,917 487,956 102,748 251,892 5,459 120,783 334,814 148,304 79,947 79,167 95,715 52,312 154,292 394,175 32,808 121,744 298,221 318,221 60,003 68,788 163,795 59,809 668,766 Dressmakers and seamstresses (not in factory) Firemen (except locomotive and fire department) . . . 19,740 2,388 6,324 15,799 79 4,016 8,779 16,039 34,935 93 1,462 4,699 122,447 117 2,541 71,572 9,461 48,892 36,522 13,198 43,888 34,661 59,266 352,039 145,434 231,206 782 40,813 24 10,544 Laborers (not otherwise specified) Clay glass, and stone industries Managers and superintendents (manufacturing) Painters, glaziers, varnishers, enamelers, etc Semi-skilled operatives (not otherwise specified) Sewers and sewing machine operators (factory) Total in manufacturing and mechanical industries . 10,658,881 8,837,901 1,820,980 * Thirteenth Census Report (1910), vol. iv, p. 53. Cf. the more detailed analysis OB pp. 91-94 of that volume. 598 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION dustrial workers according to their principal occupations. In Table CXLIV are presented figures showing the number of persons engaged in each of forty-two principal industrial occupations in 1910. From this table it will be seen at once that the clothing and textile trades engage the great majority (nearly two thirds) of all females in industrial pursuits — dressmaking, etc., 24.6 per cent; millinery, 6.7 per cent; sewing, 12.7 per cent; tailoring, 2.2 per cent; laborers in textile industries, 0.9 per cent; semi-skilled operatives in textile industries, 19.3 per cent; total, 66.4 per cent. The industrial occupations of males are naturally far more diverse. Nevertheless if in considering the data given in Table CXLIV we examine fairly specific occupations and ignore males listed under the headings "general and not specified laborers," " laborers in all other industries," " semi- skilled operatives in all other industries," " all others in this division," and " manufacturers and officials " (these together composing 27.7 per cent of the entire group), we find but nine separately listed occupations representing only the six general fields of metal-working, wood-working, machinist trades, painting trades, stationary engineering, and textile trades, engaging each as large a proportion as two per cent of all industrial male workers — carpentry, 9.2 per cent; laborers in lumber and furniture industries, 3.5 per cent; blacksmiths, etc., 2.7 per cent; laborers in metal industries, 5.9 per cent; semi-skilled operatives in metal industries, 4.5 per cent; machinists, 5.5 per cent; painting, etc., 3.8 per cent; stationary engineers, 2.6 per cent; semi-skilled opera- tives in textile industries, 3.4 per cent; total, 41.1 per cent of all male industrial workers. Grouped according to the six general fields the figures are: wood-working industries, 12.7 per cent; metal-working industries, 13.1 per cent: machinist trades, 5.5 per cent; painting trades, 3.8 per cent; PRACTICAL AND VOCATIONAL ARTS 599 stationary engineers, 2.6 per cent; textile industries, 3.4 per cent. Further light may be shed on this problem by considering the industrial occupations of persons classified on a somewhat different basis as follows: TABLE CXLV* 7. Building trades : builders and building contractors, brick and stone masons, laborers not otherwise speci6ed in building and hand trades, paint- ers, glaziers, varnishers, etc. (building), paper hangers, plasterers, plumb- ers, gas- and steam-fitters, roofers and slaters, structural iron-workers (building) — all, 1,799,242; male, 1,781,316; female, 17,926. 77. Metal-working trades: blacksmiths, forgemen, and hammermen, boiler-makers, filers, grinders, buffers, and polishers (metal), furnace- men, smelterers, heaters, pourers, etc., jewelers, watchmakers, goldsmiths, silversmiths, tinsmiths, coppersmiths, laborers not otherwise specified in iron and steel industries, laborers in other metal industries, moulders, founders, and casters (metal), rollers and roll hands (metal), semi-skilled operatives not otherwise specified in iron, steel, and other metal industries, annealers, and temperers (metal) — total, 1,570,448; male, 1,512,171; female, 58,277. 777. Clothing trades : dressmakers and seamstresses (not in factory), laborers in clothing industries not otherwise specified, laborers in shoe factories not otherwise specified, milliners and millinery dealers, semi- skilled operatives not otherwise specified in clothing industries, semi- skilled operatives not otherwise specified in shoe factories, sewers and sewing-machine operators (factory), shoemakers and cobblers (not in factory), tailors and tailoresses, dyers — total, 1,502,819; male, 543,858; female, 958,961. IV. Wood-working trades : cabinet-makers, carpenters, laborers and semi- skilled operatives not otherwise specified in lumber and furniture industries — total, 1,343,746; male, 1,326,486; female, 17,260. V. Textile trades: laborers and semi-skilled operatives in textile indus- tries not otherwise specified — total, 737,406; male, 369,328; female, 368,078. VI. Machinist trades: machinists, millwrights, and tool-makers, loom- fixers, mechanics not otherwise specified, mechanical engineers — total, 550,604; male, 550,469; female, 135. F77. Food industries: bakers, butchers and dressers (slaughterhouse), laborers and semi-skilled operatives not otherwise specified in food indus- tries, laborers and semi-skilled operatives not otherwise specified in cigar and tobacco industries, laborers and semi-skilled operatives not other- * Compiled from data given on pages 91 f. of the Thirteenth Census Report (1910), vol. rv. 600 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION wise specified in liquor, beverage industries, millers of grain, flour, feed, etc. — total, 518,154; male, 391,538; female, 126,616. VIII. Engineers (stationary, and firemen) : exclusive of locomotive and fire department — total, 342,289; male, 342,279; female, 10. IX. Printing trades: compositors, linotypers, and typesetters, electro- typers, stereotypers, and lithographers, engravers, pressmen, laborers, and semi-skilled operatives not otherwise specified in printing and publish- ing industries — total, 248,656; male, 196,813; female, 51,843. X. Ceramic trades : laborers and semi-skilled operatives not otherwise specified in clay, glass, and stone industries — • total, 243,454; male, 231,605; female, 11,849. XI. Electric trades : electricians and electrical engineers, laborers not otherwise specified in electric light and power plants, laborers and semi- skilled operatives not otherwise specified in electric supply factories — • total, 179,806; male, 167,127; female, 12,679. XII. Supervisory and executive occupations : manufacturers and officials, managers and superintendents (manufacturing), foremen and forewomen (manufacturing) — total, 535,899; male, 509,998; female, 25,901. XIII. AU other trades: total, 967,394; male, 811,544; female, 155,850. XIV. Apprentices: total, 118,964; male, 103,369; female, 15,595. Table CXLVI indicates the relative numbers of per- sons engaged in the various industries on the basis of the preceding classification. In spite of the wide variety of specialized occupations falling within each of the general groups considered, in spite of the variation in different localities, in spite of the fact that the total number of workers engaged in any industry does not show the proportion of somewhat skilled workers, and in spite of the obviously inadequate information afforded by the figures presented, Tables CXLIV, CXLV, and CXLVI show that the building, metal-working, clothing, wood-working, textile, and machinist trades engage by far the greatest proportion of industrial workers — 70.4 per cent of all industrial workers, 68.9 per cent of male, and 78.1 per cent of female. The major specialized and skill- demanding trades involved in those general trades must, therefore, form the backbone of industrial education in the secondary school for the country at large. PRACTICAL AND VOCATIONAL ARTS 601 TABLE CXLVI * Group Trade* at above classified Per cent of all en- gaged in manufac- turing and mechan- ical industries Per cent of all en- gaged in gainful occupations All (per cent) Mole (per cent) Female (per cent) All (per cent) Male (per cent) Female (per cent) I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII XIII XIV 16.9 14.7 14.1 12.6 6.9 5.2 4.9 3.2 2.3 2.3 1.7 5.0 9.1 1.1 20.2 17.1 6.2 15.0 4.2 6.2 4.4 3.9 2.2 2.6 1.9 5.8 9.2 1.1 1.0 3.2 52.7 0.9 20.3 (?) 6.9 (?) 2.8 0.6 0.7 1.4 8.6 0.9 1.6 4.2 3.9 3.5 1.9 1.4 1.3 0.9 0.7 0.7 0.5 1.4 2.6 0.3 5.9 5.0 1.8 4.4 1.2 1.8 1.3 1.1 0.7 0.8 0.6 1.7 2.7 0.3 0.2 0.7 11.9 0.2 4.6 (?) 1.6 (?) 0.6 0.2 0.2 0.4 1.9 0.2 Clothing trades Textile trades Machinist trades Engineers and firemen Printing trades Electric trades Supervisory positions Apprentices Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 27.9 29.3 22.7 * Compiled from data given in Table CXLIV and from data given by the Thirteenth Census Report (1910), pp. 91 /. 266. Variation in industrial conditions. While the main fields of industrial activity mentioned in the preceding para- graph will in all probability suggest the principal lines of industrial education for the country at large, differing con- ditions in various localities must affect the specific trades within those principal divisions and in many cases empha- size trades engaging a relatively small proportion of industrial workers throughout the country but engaging a relatively large proportion of industrial workers within a particular district or community. Thus in Waterbury, Connecticut, more than one half of the industrial workers are semi- skilled or skilled workers in the metal industries; in Tampa, Florida, more than one half are skilled (few) or semi-skilled (many) workers in the cigar and tobacco industries; in Woonsocket, Rhode Island, more than one half are semi- 602 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION skilled (many) or skilled (few) workers in the textile in- dustries; in Lynn, Massachusetts, more than one half are semi-skilled (many) or skilled (few) workers in the shoe in- dustries; etc. On the other hand, in the majority of com- munities of such size as to warrant and permit any consid- erable attention to industrial education in the regular public secondary school, industries are noticeably varied. In any case an " industrial survey " to ascertain the relative impor- tance of various trades exemplified in local industries and to determine the numbers of semi-skilled or skilled work- ers employed is a necessary preliminary to the selection of industrial occupations which should be represented by vocational subjects in the secondary school of any commu- nity.1 267. The selection of industrial subjects. Some general principles governing the selection of vocational subjects were outlined in section 254. They apply with special force to industrial education in the secondary school. A number of factors, however, invite particular attention. (1) The problem of industrial education involves special difficulties in the small school where pupils who are likely to engage in industrial activities are too few to permit the economical introduction of industrial subjects. Apparently the only solution to that problem is the establishment of sectional industrial or generally vocational schools or the introduction of part-time cooperative education. In other small but somewhat larger schools in somewhat larger communities where local industrial activities are fairly im- portant but rather varied and where the number of pupils likely to engage in industrial occupations is large enough to warrant the introduction of some industrial education, the problem of selection of industrial subjects becomes acute. In such communities any attempt to meet the needs 1 Cf. Report of tlie Minneapolis Survey for Vocational Education. PRACTICAL AND VOCATIONAL ARTS 603 of special local industries, except in so far as they may repre- sent generally important trades, must be discouraged, and industrial subjects must be chosen which represent occupa- tions having a steady and general demand throughout the state or country. (2) A newly established local industry or an industry for a time rapidly growing frequently creates a demand for skilled workers which is but temporary. Care must be taken that industrial education be provided for those occupations which have a fairly steady and general demand; e.g., in many communities the manufacture of various war supplies has received a tremendous impetus during the European war. The demand for skilled munition workers is at present greatly exaggerated and cannot long remain at its present high status. (3) In many industries there is a constant change in the workers employed and the period of service in certain trades is so short as to preclude opportunity for satisfactory indus- trial training related to those occupations in the secondary school. This constant change, we have already seen, is true of the work- ers in our canning factories and of those in knitting mills and mills producing low-grade cotton textiles. Similar instability is found among the workers on the simpler processes in the making of har- vesting machinery and in one instance a foundry employing three thousand men reported twenty-six hundred yearly changes. Where men and women are continually shifting from one line of employ- ment to another, the community cannot afford to finance their vocational training until a study of the trade shall reveal that there are skilled processes requiring special training which this shifting group has never received and which might be expected to hold them more uniformly in one industry.1 (4) In different industries the proportions of skilled, semi- skilled, and unskilled laborers vary greatly. Thus the indus- 1 H. B. Smith, Establishing Industrial Schools, p. 13. 604 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION trial workers of Minneapolis in 1915 were distributed as follows : TABLE CXLVII. DISTBIBUTION OF SKILLED, SEMI-SKILLED, AND UNSKILLED WORKERS IN THE MANUFACTURING AND ME- CHANICAL INDUSTRIES OF MINNEAPOLIS, 1915 * Industries Skilled Semi-skilled Laborers Total Male Female Male Female Male Female Building trades 9,379 5,324 1,236 5,310 1,272 1,031 2,405 1,184 2 307 150 2 2 4,792 175 15 57 6 62 ' '2 1,743 144 'S2 134 5,494 839 3 61 7 14,936 7,967 6,309 5,485 4,065 3,046 2,807 1,817 932 892 716 349 338 171 3420 Clothing Supervisors and technicians Lumber and furniture 1,379 851 76 294 185 440 283 244 203 16 1,110 42 477 45 266 684 121 4 99 8 1 764 1,347 613 272 9 48 18 278 4 126 821 10 17 3 2 13 4 1 2 1 "i Printing and engraving. . . . Textile Boots, shoes, and leather. . . Liquor and beverage 150 701 4 20 Total 28,451 53.4 5,137 9.7 6,968 13.1 2,697 5.0 9,872 18.6 125 0.2 53,250 100.00 Per cent ... * Report of the Minneapolis Survey for Vocational Education, Bulletin no. 21 of the Na- tional Society for the Promotion of Vocational Education, p. 15. Those trades or parts of trades only which offer some oppor- tunity for the utilization of somewhat skilled workers in fairly large numbers should be represented by related indus- trial courses in the secondary school. (5) Some trades are of such a character that related in- dustrial training cannot be provided within the secondary school building and under ordinary school conditions. Provision can be made for industrial education in such fields only through part-time work, continuation schools, or specially organized institutions. 268. " General subjects " modified. The practice initi- ated in special type vocational schools of adapting " general PRACTICAL AND VOCATIONAL ARTS 605 subjects " to special supposed or real industrial needs has tended to spread to the modification of such subjects for the same purpose in the regular secondary school. Notwith- standing the fact that something may legitimately and economically be done in this direction there is danger that artificial differentiation may result in damage both to in- dustrial education and to other educational needs. In general much of the comment made in section 260 dealing with clerical and commercial education applies here also. For instance it must be recognized that courses in English and social science exist in the secondary-school program for purposes which are not primarily vocational. It must be remembered that the worker is also to be a citizen and an individual. The threefold nature of his activities cannot be neglected : neither can one group of subjects or one kind of education lead effectively to all three ends at the same time. "Industrial English" and " industrial history," however le- gitimately they may find a place in that part of the school program dealing specifically with industrial education, can never take the place of the English and social science de- signed for other purposes. They must, if justified at all, be supplements to and not substitutes for related courses designed to contribute toward the social-civic and indi- vidualistic-avocational aims of secondary education. IV. AGRICULTURAL SUBJECTS 269. The scope of agricultural education. Although some attention has been paid to agriculture in certain of the academies before 1850, the present vocational movement began with the establishment of special agricultural high schools in connection with agricultural colleges (first in Minnesota in 1888). The movement somewhat later spread to special sectional agricultural high schools but not until 606 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION within the past ten or fifteen years was agricultural educa- tion introduced into the regular public secondary schools to any noteworthy extent. Previous to 1906 there were but few high schools (excepting agricultural high schools) giving instructionin agriculture.1 In 1912-13 there were about 2300 high schools (2128 ordinary high schools) in the country teaching agriculture.2 In 1914-15 such instruction was afforded in 4390 public secondary schools and 83,573 pub- lic secondary-school pupils were enrolled in agricultural courses. 3 Favorable legislation granting State and National aid to agricultural education will in all probability greatly extend its scope within the next few years, giving greater and greater importance to the agricultural subjects in the secondary-school program of studies. The recency of agricultural education in the public sec- ondary schools has prevented the development of many stable policies or practices, particularly since much of the work in agriculture varies somewhat according to geograph- ical factors. Lack of even the roughest standardization renders impossible analysis of practice affecting specific subjects for agricultural education. 270. Factors emphasizing agricultural education. As is the case with other forms of vocational education several factors have combined to emphasize agricultural education in the secondary school at the present time. The more important of those factors may be summarized briefly here, (a.) Modern educational theory cannot recognize the claim that a "general education" provides satisfactorily for the life which the agriculturalist must lead. (6) Mod- ern educational theory postulates that the values, character, and aims of instruction should be determined by the activ- 1 Davis, B. M., Agricultural Education in the Public Schools, p. 119. 2 Report of the United States Commissioner of Education (1913), vol. i, p. 213. 3 Ibid. (191C), vol. ii, p. 497. PRACTICAL AND VOCATIONAL ARTS 607 ities in which the pupils will later participate, (c) Within recent years boys and girls whose destinies in life are found on the farm have entered the secondary school in increasing numbers, (d) Within a relatively short period of time the parts played in production by abundant natural resources and agricultural efficiency have changed to a marked degree. If production is to keep pace economically with demand, the inefficient agricultural work of the past must give way to a higher degree of efficiency in order to offset the relative decrease in abundant natural resources, (e) In the field of animal husbandry in particular the decrease in the amount of land which may economically be devoted to stock raising and grazing demands far greater efficiency in order to offset that loss. (/) Competition in agricultural production has constantly increased as increased transportation facilities have extended the field of competition even to international proportions, (g} The increased application of science to agri- culture and animal husbandry has tended to demand a higher degree of knowledge and skill for the successful pursuit of those occupations, (h) The increased scientific and technical knowledge and skill demanded for agricultural occupations has rendered the ordinary life of the boy or girl on the farm less and less an adequate preparation for efficiency in those occupations, (i) Compulsory school-attendance laws and child-labor laws have removed children from early appren- ticeship on the farm where they formerly received early agricultural training, (j) The school has tended more and more to occupy boys and girls at ages when they formerly were engaged in agricultural activities, (k) There has been a very noticeable tendency for large numbers of boys and girls to leave the farm and engage in urban occupations. The education which has heretofore been afforded the country boy and girl has encouraged this migration by pro- viding the kind of education in elementary and secondary 608 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION school which gave little preparation for farm life and much for city life. (I) More than nine tenths of the public second- ary schools in the country are found in communities of less than eight thousand inhabitants and considerably more than one half of the secondary-school pupils in the country are found in the small-town or rural communities.1 271. Aims and values of agricultural education. The aims of the study of agricultural subjects in the secondary school are obviously those emphasizing the economic- vocational aim of education. Accordingly the values of various agricultural subjects in the program are to be de- termined by the contributions which those subjects may make to the economic-vocational efficiency of individuals who will be engaged primarily in agricultural occupations. Those values are direct and specific, though limited for the most part to pupils who will participate primarily in agri- cultural activities. In agricultural education, therefore, indirect and general aims must be subordinated to direct and specific aims. Emphasis on "disciplinary values " (them- selves questionable) is of questionable validity when brought into such sharp contrast with the direct and specific voca- tional values of agricultural study in the secondary school. Hence may be questioned the emphasis by Robison : 2 Reasoning ability not due to heredity results largely from re- peatedly forming and correcting judgments. Casual examination of the materials of high school agriculture show that they offer abundant opportunities for doing this. 272. Analysis of agricultural occupations. For purposes of securing a basis for agricultural education in the second- ary school an examination of census statistics is of relatively 1 Cf. Section 32. 2 Robison, C. H., p. 384 of Johnston, C. H. (Editor), High School Edu- cation. Quoted with the permission of the publishers, Charles Scribner's Sons. PRACTICAL AND VOCATIONAL ARTS 609 little value. Nevertheless the figures presented below will at least emphasize the fact that the great majority of agricul- tural workers is composed of "farmers" and "farm labor- ers" whose occupations demand a rather general agricul- tural training rather than training in one limited phase of agricultural activity. • TABLE CXLVUE. DISTRIBUTION OF AGRICULTURAL WORKERS IN 1910* Occupations Numbers Per cents All Male Female All Male Female 61,816 35,014 5,865,003 5,975,057 47,591 139,255 133,927 62,975 52,521 44,238 59,240 32,237 5,607,297 4,460,634 39,826 131,421 126,453 62,090 50,847 40,408 2,576 2,777 257,706 1,514,423 7,765 7,834 7,474 885 1,674 3,830 0.5 0.3 47.2 48.1 0.4 1.1 1.1 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.6 0.3 52.9 42.0 0.4 1.2 1.1 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.1 0.2 83.8 14.3 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.1 0.1 0.2 Farmers Foremen, farm, dairy, gar- Gardeners, florists, fruit grow- Garden, greenhouse, etc., labor- ers Stock herders, drovers, feeders, Other agricultural and animal workers Total 12,417,397 10,610,453 1,806,944 100.0 100.0 100.0 * From p. 91 of the Thirteenth Census Report (1910), vol. iv. In the table given above are omitted figures for fishermen, oystermen, lumbermen, etc. Figures for female farm laborers are probably somewhat unreliable. The most noteworthy fact emerging from these figures is that "farmers" and "farm laborers" comprise more than 95 per cent of all agricultural and animal-husbandry work- ers. The "average farmer" engages in a wide variety of agricultural activities, including dairy work, poultry hus- bandry, and other forms of animal husbandry, crop raising, orcharding, etc. While specialization in agricultural occu- pations is constantly increasing the great majority of agricultural workers must engage in general farm work. 610 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION The preparation of such persons must, therefore, cover a relatively wide range of agricultural activities. In many cases the failure of the small farmer is a direct result of his inability or unwillingness to combine several different but more or less supplementary phases of agricultural and animal-husbandry activities. 273. Variation in agricultural activities. While some of the elements entering into agricultural education in the secondary school remain relatively constant as far as geo- graphical factors are concerned, other important elements must vary widely according to local conditions of soil, climate, topography, population distribution, and other factors. (1) Certain phases of agricultural and animal- husbandry occupations may legitimately receive special attention in States like Arizona where stock raising, etc., engages the activity of more than one quarter of those engaged in agricultural or animal-husbandry pursuits, in parts of California where more than eighteen per cent of all agricultural workers are engaged in horticulture, fruit- growing, nurseries, etc., on Long Island where the majority of farmers are engaged in truck-farming. (2) Special phases of agricultural pursuits may be emphasized according to soil and climatic or general topographical conditions; e.g., note the importance of dairy husbandry in southwestern Washington, of cattle and horse raising in central Washing- ton, and of grain production in eastern Washington. The selection of certain kinds of agricultural education in the secondary school must be determined to some extent by predominant local agricultural occupations. The general principles governing such selection have been outlined in previous sections. 274. The adaptation of " general " subjects. As with other forms of vocational education there has developed a tendency to modify instruction in several " general " sub- 611 jects in the secondary-school program to the needs of special groups of pupils whose manifest destinies involve primarily agricultural occupations. For the most part such modifica- tion and adaptation has taken place in connection with the natural sciences, especially in connection with the biological sciences. The important basic bearing of the biological sciences on agriculture and the fact that the secondary- school population in rural communities tends to be roughly homogeneous as far as its vocational needs are concerned appear to give justification to the practice of directing the natural-science work for agricultural pupils along lines ap- propriate to the pursuit of agriculture and animal hus- bandry. As yet little attempt has been made to modify other " general " subjects for the purposes of agricultural education and the objections raised to "vocational English" and "vocational -social science" in connection with clerical, commercial, and industrial education need not here be considered. V. DOMESTIC SUBJECTS 275. Scope and field of domestic education. Under the general title of "domestic subjects" are here considered those subjects related to the various activities which have developed in the fields of housekeeping and homemaking. In this category fall such subjects as are commonly listed under the titles "household arts," "household sciences," and many "practical arts for girls" —covering the selec- tion, purchase, preparation, and serving of food; the se- lection, purchase, preparation, and care of clothing; the selection, purchase, use, care, and arrangement of house- hold apparatus; the care and training of little children, care for household sanitation and family health, etc. As is the case with the practical arts in general those 612 PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION dealing with the home and family have been almost totally neglected in the secondary school until within the past few years and even at present receive very inadequate atten- tion. Within the past decade or two domestic subjects covering a relatively wide range of domestic activities have been introduced in some of the larger secondary schools. In smaller schools the tendency has been to introduce ele- mentary courses in cooking and sewing. In many secondary schools no domestic subject has yet found its way into the program of studies. The late development of instruction in domestic subjects has not yet permitted the establishment of many stable policies and practices and domestic education must at present be considered as in its experimental and formative stage. No exact analysis of existing domestic subjects can be made where the materials, organization, and methods of teaching them differ widely in different schools. 276. Factors emphasizing domestic education. The primary factor emphasizing the importance of domestic arts in the program of the secondary school is, of course, recog- nition of the fact that the majority of girls will later be en- gaged predominantly in the activities of homemaking and housekeeping. It is true that in the past, even more than in the present, the home has been the sphere of woman's activity. Despite the fact, however, that women have to an ever-increasing extent engaged in activities outside the home, and in spite of the fact that many activities have been removed from the home, several factors have tended to emphasize the importance of secondary-school training in the domestic arts at the present time. Among those factors may be mentioned the following, (a) The education hereto- fore emphasized in the secondary school has to a consider- able extent tended to guide the girl away from activities peculiar to the home. (6) Compulsory school-attendance PRACTICAL AND VOCATIONAL ARTS 613 laws and other factors have tended to bring more girls into the secondary school and to hold them there for a longer time. The secondary school has made such demands on the time and energy of girls that the amount of domestic train- ing in the home has been noticeably curtailed, (c) Greatly extended opportunities for girls and women earning a liveli- hood in industry have decreased the amount of relatively cheap " hired help " in the home, thereby tending to some extent to offset the effect of labor-saving devices in the home and to increase the need for efficiency in domestic work, (d) Changed conditions of family life (e.g., the with- drawal of the mother from household work to factory work or other work outside the home) have in many cases ren- dered traditional methods of transmitting household arts from mother to daughter inadequate, (e) The modern scien- tific study of food values and nutrition of sanitation and hygiene has lent new meaning to household work. (/) The increased cost of many staple food commodities (especially meats) has emphasized the need for economical efficiency in the selection, purchase, and preparation of food. ( 593-94. Cf. Foreign countries, Germany, France, England, etc. Evening schools, 697-98. Evidences of Christianity, 180, 187, 188. Examinations for college entrance, 324-36. Expectancy of stay in the secondary school, 141-45. Cf. also Educa- INDEX 731 tional diagnosis, Educational gui- dance, Classification of pupils, Retardation, Elimination, Diag- nostic education, etc. Expense, cf. Cost. Experimental investigation of trans- fer, 407^09. Extra-curriculum activities, 715-17. Factory system, effects of, 361, 595. Faculty psychology, 394, 459-60, 496, 514, 522, 554-55, 587. Fallacies involved in determining direct values, 389-94; Spencer's fallacies, 512-17. Fathers, occupations of, 102-03. Fine arts, cf. ^Esthetic arts. Flexibility of organization and ad- ministration, 294, 677-80. Food industries, 599-601. Foreign-born children and children of foreign-born parentage, 95-100. Cf. Biological heredity, Social heredity. Foreign countries, secondary edu- cation in, 203-58, 272-74, 666- 67. Foreign languages, general treat- ment of instruction in, 447-78. Cf. also 51, 70, 321-23, 413-15, 438, 665, 686, 687. Cf. Latin, Greek, German, French, Spanish. Formal discipline, cf . Transfer of im- proved efficiency. Fortbttdungschule, 221-23. Cf. Ger- many, education in. Foster, W. L., on pubescence as a basis for classification, 24-25, 67. France, education in, general treat- ment, 231-46. Cf. also 205, 206, 272-74, 422, 450-51, 512, 543-44. Frankfort plan of Reformschule, 213- 15. Franklin's Academy, 171-72, 178, 481. Frauenschule, 216-18. French, general treatment of foreign language instruction, 447-77. Cf. also 178, 179, 180, 188, 190, 209- 12, 214-15, 217-18, 236, 238, 241, 249, 520, 590. Fresno, California, Junior College, 311. Functions of secondary education, 375-83, 668-69. General high school, cf. Comprehen- sive secondary school. General science, 320, 413, 525-29, 676, 686-87. Cf. Natural sciences. Generalization, 379 ff. Cf. Dissocia- tion, Transfer of improved effi- ciency. Geography, 165, 178, 179, 180, 186, 187, 188, 276, 283, 413, 676, 686- 87. Geology, general treatment of nat- ural science instruction, 506-29. Cf. also 180, 320, 413. Geometry, general treatment of mathematical studies, 481-503. Cf . also 165, 178, 179, 180, 187, 188, 320, 402, 403, 413, 414, 415, 686, 687. German, general treatment of for- eign language instruction, 447-77. Cf. also 180, 209-12, 214-15, 217- 18, 238, 249, 320, 413, 414, 415, 416, 417, 520, 590. Germany, education in, general treatment, 206-31. Cf. also 171, 205, 272-74, 421-22, 450, 484, 511, 543-44. Gilbert, J. A., on growth and school standing, 14, 16; on development of mental traits, 36. Ginnasio, 273. Girls, height and weight, 8-14; vital capacity, 15; pubescence and adolescence, 21 ff . ; development of mental traits, 36-38; compared with boys, 108-15; secondary edu- cation of in academy, 181-82; sec- ondary education of in Germany, 216-19; secondary education of in France, 240-41; secondary educa- tion of in England, 253-54. Cf. Sex, Individual differences, Co- education. Government, cf. Social sciences, Civics. Government of pupils, 719-21. 732 INDEX Grades, distribution of, 79, 81. Gradual development, theory of, 54 ff. Gradual transition, principle of, 293- 94. Graduates, distribution of college, 316. Graduates, distribution of high- school, 14&-53. Grammar, 413, 434. Cf. English. Grammar school, cf. Latin grammar school. Grant-list and efficient schools of England and Wales, 250-54. Greece, aesthetic arts in ancient Greece, 621-22; physical educa- tion in ancient Greece, 640; edu- cation in modern Greece, 205, 273. Greek, general treatment of foreign language, instruction, 447-77. Cf. also 164-65, 178, 209, 212, 214, 236, 238, 249, 304, 314, 320, 413, 414. Grip of hand, 76. Growth, physical traits, 3-32; men- tal traits, 34-71. Guidance, cf. Educational guidance, Educational diagnosis, Expectancy of stay, Classification of pupils, Diagnostic education, Diagnostic function, Individual differences, Retardation, Elimination. Guizot Law, 237. Gymnasium, 641. Cf. Physical edu- cation. Gymnasium, 209 ff. Cf. Germany, education in. Gymnastics, 652-58. Cf. Physical Education. Hadley, A. T., on distinction be- tween elementary, secondary, and higher education, 265. Hall, G. S., on adolescence, 56-58. Handwork, cf. Manual arts, Manual training, Practical arts education, etc. Harrow, 248. Hartwell, E. M., on death rate, 18. Head, circumference of, 15-17. Health, in relation to physical growth, 17-19. Cf. Physical edu- cation, Hygiene. Heart disease, 649. Hecker's Realschule, 171. Height, growth in, 8-14; individual differences in, 76, 78. Henderson, E. N., on Rosenkrantz's theory of mental stages, 41-43. Heredity, cf. Biological heredity, Social heredity, Individual dif- ferences. Heterogeneity, of population, 358- 59; of school groups, cf. Individual differences. High school, historical development, 184-200; relation to the elemen- tary school, 261-98; relation to higher institutions, 303-36. Cf. Secondary education, Junior high school, Senior high school, Com- prehensive secondary school, Spe- cial-type schools, Program of Studies, Curriculums, Organiza- tion, etc. High-school course, pupils' estimate of value, 107-08. High-school graduates, distribution of, 146-53. High-school pupils, physical traits, 3-32; mental traits, 34-71 ; individ- ual differences, 74-115; attitudes toward school work, interests, etc., 103-08; acceleration and retarda- tion, 123-28; elimination, 128-45; expectancy of stay in school, 142- 45; distribution and classification, 146-55, 671-74; going to college or other higher institution, 146-53, 312-14. Higher education in relation to sec- ondary education, 303-36. Hinsdale, B. A., on the values of the study of history, 554-55. Historical development of secondary education, 161-200. History, general treatment of social science instruction, 534-69, espe- cially 545-59. Cf. also 171, 179- 80, 186-87, 188-89, 209-12, 214- 15, 217-18, 236, 238, 241, 249, 253, 411, 413-15, 583-604, 676, 686-87. INDEX 733 History of English literature as a study, 413. Hohere Schule, 208-31. Cf. Ger- many, education in. Hoheres Lehrerinnenseminar, 216-19. Cf. Germany, education in. Holland, E. O.. on the relation be- tween secondary schools and nor- mal schools, 309. Holley, C. E., on home conditions and persistence in school, 100-01, 135-37. Home and family life, the effect of changes in secondary education, 350-56, 578, 585, 595, 607, 613, 644. Home conditions and elimination, 134-37. Home economics, cf. Domestic edu- cation. Home making, etc., cf. Domestic education. Home study, cf. Supervised study .^ Hopkins, Edward, and the Latin grammar schools, 163. Household arts education, cf. Do- mestic education. Household economics, cf. Domestic education. Household science, cf . Domestic edu- cation. Huxley, T., on the values of natural science instruction, 530. Hygiene, 645-51. Cf. also, 413, 508, 519, 641, 686, 687. Cf. Natu- ral sciences, Physical education, Sex hygiene. Illness, at adolescence, 19; prevent- able through education, 642. Immigration, bearing of, on second- ary education, 95-100. Income of the family as related to persistence in school, 101-02. Indirect values, 394-412. Cf. also subject titles. Individual differences, general treat- ment of character, distribution, and causes, 74-115; necessity for earlier recognition, 285-86, 290, 665-66, 695; importance in the junior high school, 294, 685-87; as a social factor, 347-49; in relation to the differentiating function of secondary education, 378-79, 668- 69, 671-75, 676-82; in relation to supervised study, 714. Individualistic-avocational aim of secondary education, general treat- ment, 367, 371-74, 667-68; related to literature, 640-42; related to history, 552; related to music, 630- 31. Industrial (arts) education, general treatment, 593-605; cumculums, 688; as related to aesthetic arts, 626, 634-36; in Germany, 222-23. Cf. Vocational education. Industrial occupations, analysis of, 597-601. Inspection, cf. Accrediting system. Instincts, 48. Instruction, organization of, 712-15. Cf . Supervised study, Cumculums, Program of studies, etc. Integrating function of secondary education, 296-97, 377-78, 439, 551, 668, 676. Cf. Integration, Social Heredity, etc. Integration, social, 95-100, 296-97, 347-49, 377-78, 439, 551, 668, 676. Intermediate school, cf. Junior high school. Interests of pupils, 103-08, 113-15, 701-02. Cf . Individual differences, Educational guidance, Education- al diagnosis, Diagnostic function, Diagnostic education, Curricu- lums, Vocational education, etc. Italian, 413. Cf. Foreign languages. Italy, 205, 273. James, W., on memory, 44; on in- stincts, 48. Japan, 205, 273. Joliet (Illinois) Junior College, 310. Jones, A. L., on examinations as a test of fitness for college admission, 328-29. Judd, C. H., on the problem of trans fer, 395-97, 400, 408, 419. Junior college, 310-12. 734 INDEX Junior high school, general treatment, 284-98; curriculum organization, 684-87; place in the school system, 693-98; comprehensive versus special-type organization, 684-85, 698-99; organization of instruc- tion and supervised study, 712-15; diagnosis and guidance, 718-19. Cf . Elementary education in relation to secondary education. Kalamazoo High School case, 200. Kandel, I., on the Einheitschide in Germany, 224. Kansas, teacher-training courses in high schools, 308. Karpinski, L. C., on the values of mathematical study, 490, 493. Keatings, M. W., on methods of his- tory instruction, 556-58. Keer, J., on the academy, in Scot- land, 171. Kerschensteiner, G., on German and American education, 227, 229. King, I., on gradual development, 60-62; on the interests and habits of high-school pupils, 102-04. Kingsley, C. D., on college entrance requirements, 317-23; on the Study of Nations, 569. Kirkpatrick, E. A., on mental traits, 47. Laboratory work, 507-08. Land grants to academies, 175-78. Language study, cf. English, For- eign languages, Latin, Greek, Ger- man, French, Spanish. Latin, general treatment of foreign language study, 447-77. Cf. also 164-65, 166, 167, 172, 178-80, 188, 189, 209-10, 212, 214-15, 217, 236-38, 241, 249, 253, 304, 306, 314, 320, 413-15, 416, 417. Latin grammar school, general treat- ment, 160-70. Cf. also, 269-70, 304-05, 420-21, 481, 506, 534, 662. Latin-scientific course, 508, 536, 664, 665, 666. Leicester Academy, 181. Leisure, preparation for the worthy use of, 371-74. Cf. Individuals tic-avocational aim. Liberal and vocational education, 705-06. Liceo, 273. Lincoln, E. A., on the correlation of standing in high school, college- entrance examinations, and in early college, 331-32. Linguistic education, cf. English, Language study, Foreign lan- guages. Literature, general treatment, 420- 25, 438-45, 627-28. Cf. English, ^Esthetic arts. Cf. also, 51, 413, 414, 415, 424-25, 438-42. Lodge, H. C., on the values of classi- cal studies, 459-60. Logic, 178, 179, 180, 186, 188, 189, 413. Los Angeles Junior High School, 292. Lungs, growth of, 15-16. Lyc6e, 231 ff. Lyzeum, 216-18. MacDonald, A., on growth and school progress, 13. Machinist trades, 599-601. Madchenschule, 208, 216-19. Cf. Germany, education in. Maine, state aid in, 199. Major studies, for college admission, 321-23; for concentration, 680-81. Mann, Horace, on history in early schools, 535. Manual arts in the junior high school, 686, 687. Manual training, 413, 414, 573, 593- 94. Cf. Practical arts education, Vocational education, Industrial education. Maryland, academies in, 174. Massachusetts, Latin grammar schools, 163-69; academies, 172- 74, 176-77; public high schools, 185-93; legal provisions for sec- ondary education, 165-66, 188- 92. Massachusetts Commission on In- dustrial and Technical Education. 618. INDEX 735 Mathematics, general treatment, 481-503. Cf. also, 75-76, 79, 80, 81-82, 111, 165, 172, 178-80, 186, 187, 188, 189, 209-12, 214, 215, 217, 218, 235, 236, 238, 249, 253, 283, 306, 319, 320, 321, 322, 323, 413, 414, 415, 416, 664, 665, 686, 687. Cf. Arithmetic, Algebra, Geometry, Trigonometry, Calcu- lus. Maturity, cf. Adolescence, Puberty. Mayo, M. J., on the mental capac- ity of the negro pupil, 90-95. Mechanical drawing, cf . Design and related arts, Practical arts educa- tion, Vocational education. Mechanics, 413. Median, 85. Median deviation, 85. Medical examination, 641. Cf. Phys- ical education. Memories, development with age, 38-39; individual differences, 76. Men teachers, 280. Meningitis, 649. Mensuration, 179, 180, 186, 413. Mental development, general treat- ment, 34-71, 262-64. Mental discipline, cf. Transfer of improved efficiency. Mental traits, general treatment, 34- 71. Merchandising, cf. Commercial edu- cation. Merchant Taylors', 248. Metal-working trades, 599-601. Meteorology, 180, 413. Cf. Natural sciences. Methods of teaching, as affected by theories of development, 52-53, 70-71; supervised study, 713-15; deferred and immediate values, 713; in the junior high school, 278- 81, 294-95. Cf. subject titles. Military training, 640, 641, 652, 657- 58. Milliken, R. A., on the propaedeutic values of mathematics, 490. Mills, J. E., on the values of chem- istry, 515. Mineralogy, 180, 413. Minneapolis Survey, 604. Minnesota, state aid in, 200. Minor studies, 322-23. Mittelschule, 221-22. Mobility of labor and population, ef- fect on education, 359-60. Mode, 85. Modern languages, general treat- ment of foreign language instruc- tion, 447-77. Cf. also German, French, Spanish, Italian. Modern Language Association, on the scope of modern language in- struction, 456. Modern language course, 508, 536, 664-66. Monroe, P., on the bearing of ado- lescence on secondary education, 65, 69-70; on German schools, 220, 222; on French schools, 237. Moral-social education, as affected by changes in the home, in com- munity life, and in the vocation. 351-53, 363-64; as effected bj changes in the Church, 360-61. Moravian academies, 172. Mortality statistics, 17-18, 642-14, 649. Mother tongue, cf. English. Motor skill, 51. Music, general treatment, 628-33. Cf. .Esthetic arts. Cf. also 180, 209, 210, 217, 236, 241, 249, 253, 283, 320, 413, 414, 415, 686, 687, Nationality, individual differences due to, 95-100; relation to elimina- tion, 136. Natural history, 180, 413. Natural Philosophy, cf. Physics. Natural sciences, general treatment, 506-29. Cf. Physics, Chemistry, Biology, General science, Physi- ology, Astronomy, Geology, Mete- orology, Physical geography, Bot- any, Zoo-logy. Cf. also 321-23, 413, 414, 515, 645-51, 665, 686, 687. Natural theology, 187, 188, 413. Nazareth Hall, 172. Navigation, 179, 180, 186, 413. 736 INDEX Negroes, mental capacity of, 90-95. Nervous diseases, 644. Nervous system, growth of, 26. Netherlands, 205. New England, Latin grammar school in, 169; academies in, 175; workers in various occupations, 580. New England College Entrance Cer- tificating Board, 334^35, 338. New Hampshire, Latin grammar schools in, 168, 169. New York State, academies in, 174, 177, 180, 193; high-school move- ment, 193. New York State Board of Regents, 325. Normal age, 123-;24. Normal distribution, 77-84. Normal schools, 308-10. Norsworthy, N., on memory span, 38. North Carolina, academies in, 174. North Central Association of Col- leges and Secondary schools, 335. North Central States, teacher train- ing in high schools, 308. Norway, 205. Oberlehrer, 223-24. Oberlyzeum, 216-19. Oberrealschule, 310 ff. Cf. Germany, education in. Occupational choices of high-school pupils, 103-06. Occupations, analysis of, general divisions, 578-80; clerical, 587- 88; commercial, 588-90; indus- trial, 597-602, 604; agricultural, 608-10; of women, 613-14. Cf. Practical arts education, Voca- tional education, Industrial Edu- cation, Clerical education, Com- mercial education, Agricultural education, Domestic education. Occupation of pupils' fathers, 101- 03, 136. Occupations of high-school gradu- ates, 152-53. Ohio, high-school movement in, 163- 64. Organic diseases, 644. Organization, of curriculums, 662- 690; of the school system, 693-98; of the secondary school, 698-704; of vocational secondary education. 704-12; of instruction, 712-15; of extra-curriculum education, 715-17; of educational guidance, 717-19; social organization of the school, 719-21. Organs and parts of the body, growth of, 14-17. Ossification, 17. Over-age pupils, cf. Retardation, Promotion. Painting, cf. ^Esthetic arts, Design and related arts. Part-time education, 596, 602, 708- 11. Cf. Vocational education. Paterson, N.J., age-grade distribu- tion, 5; distribution of pupils ac- cording to stages of puberty, 27-32. Pearse, A. S., on the values of bio- logical study, 516-17. Pearson, K., on scientific method, 524-25. Pedagogical age, 6-7, 276-77. Pennsylvania, academies in, 309. Pennsylvania State Normal Schools, 309. Perkins, A. S., report of experiment on the results of Latin study, 474- 75. Pettee Committee, on the division of the system of education, 292. Phillips Academies at Andover and Exeter, 172, 178-79. Physical development, general treat- ment, 3-32. Cf. also 262-64, 669- 71. Cf. Adolescence, Puberty, Physical education. Physical education, general treat- ment, 640-58. Physical geography, 413, 414, 415. Cf. Natural sciences. Physical training, general treatment, 651-58. Cf. Physical education. Physical traits, 3-32. Physics, general treatment of natural science instruction, 506-29. Cf. also, 178, 179, 180, 186, 188, 189, INDEX 272, 320, 413, 414, 415. Cf. Natu- ral sciences. Physiological age, 7, 19-30, 284-85. Cf. Adolescence, Puberty, Physi- cal development. Physiology, general treatment of physical education, 645-51; gen- eral treatment of natural science instruction, 506-29. Cf. also 180, 320, 413, 414, 415, 686, 687. Plato, on Greek education, 621-22. Play, 654-58. Plymouth Colony, Latin grammar school, 168. Political economy, cf. Economics, Social sciences. Postpubescence, cf. Puberty, Ado- lescence. Porter, W. T., on growth and school progress, 12-14. Portugal, 205. Practical arts education, general treatment, 572-615. Cf. Voca- tional education, Industrial edu- cation, Commercial education, Agricultural education, Domestic education. Preferential studies, 681-82. Preparation for college, cf. College. Preparatory curriculums, 689. Preparatory schools, cf. Academy, Private schools, Propaedeutic func- tion, College. Prepubescence, cf. Puberty, Adoles- cence. Preventive medicine, 643. Prevocational education, 288-89, 706-07. Cf . Vocational education. Primary education, cf. Elementary education, £cole primaire. Printing trades, 600-01. Private schools, 119-20, 196-97. Cf. Academy. Probejahr, 223. Problems of American Democracy, as a study, 546, 565-67. Problem-solving methods, 402-03. Professeur, 243-44. Professions entered by college and university graduates, 315-16. Program of studies (not curriculums), criteria of subject values, general treatment, 386-412; analysis of program, 412-18. Cf. Subject titles, Curriculums. Progymnasium, 209 ff . Cf . Germany, education in. Promotion, 294, 696-97. Propaedeutic function of secondary education, 379-80, 669. Cf. Col- lege. Prussia, education in, 206-31. Pryor, on anatomical age, 17. Psychological age, 7, 34-71, 262-64, 284-85, 696-97. Pubescence, cf. Puberty, Adoles- cence. Puberty, general treatment, 19-32, 34-71, 262-64. Public schools of England, 247 S. Pupils, physical traits, 3-32; mental traits, 34-71; individual differ- ences, 74-115; distribution and classification, 118-55, 671-74. Pyle, W. H., on association and sub- stitution tests, 37. Questionnaire methods, 63-64. Racial heredity, 89-95. Cf. Biologi- cal heredity, Social heredity, In- dividual differences. Rapeer, L. W., on physical educa- tion, 642, 648, 649, 659. Reaction time, 36. Realgymnasium, 210 ff . Cf . Germany, education in. Realprogymnasium, 210 ff. Cf. Ger- many, education in. Realschule, 210 ff . Cf . Germany, edu- cation in. Reasoning, theories involving the de- velopment of capacity for, 39-71; individual differences in arith- metical reasoning among high- school pupils, 76. Cf . also Transfer of improved efficiency. Recitation, reforms in supervised study, 713-14. Reformschule, Reformgymnasium, 213-15. Cf. Germany, education 738 INDEX Religion, effects of changes in the Church, 360-61 ; religion as a study in German higher schools, 209, 210, 211, 212, 214, 215, 217, 218. Cf. Denominational schools, Sec- tarian schools. Reorganization of elementary and secondary education, 274-98, 693- 721. Cf. Junior high school, Social principles. For reorganization of means of instruction, cf. subject titles. Repeaters, cf. Retardation. Required studies, 675-76, 681-82. Cf. Constants, Individual differ- ences, Election and elective stud- ies, Preferential studies, Vari- ables, Curriculums, and subject titles. Retardation, general treatment, 123- 27. Cf. also, 281-82, 287-88, 294, 696-97. Cf. Acceleration, Elimi- nation, Promotion, Physical de- velopment, Mental development. Rhetoric, 178, 179, 180, 186, 188, 189, 413, 414, 415, 416. Cf. Eng- lish. Rhode Island, Latin grammar schools in, 168. Rigid curriculums, 677-80. Robinson, J. H., on historical in- struction, 568. Robison, C. H., on the transfer val- ues of agricultural study, 608. Roman Catholic Church, schools maintained by, 184. Rosenkrantz, J. K. F., on stages of mental development, 41-42. Rotch, on anatomical age, 17. Ruediger, W. C., on transfer, 404. Rugby, 248. Rugg, H. O., transfer values of math- ematical study, 497-98. Rural communities, secondary educa- tion in, 582, 607, 703; statistics of secondary schools and attendance, 120-21; distribution of population in rural and urban communities, 357. Cf. Agricultural education, Urbanization, Smith-Hughes Law. Russia, 205. St. Paul's (London), 248. Salaries of teachers, in Germany, 223; in France, 244. Salesmanship, cf. Commercial edu- cation. Salmon, L., on the values of histori- cal study, 554. Saltatory development, 54 ff. Cf. Adolescence, Puberty, Physical de- velopment, Mental development, Gradual development. Santa Barbara (California) Junior College, 311. Schools, comprehensive versus spe- cial-type, 698-704. Schultze, A., on the values of mathe- matical study, 487-88, 490, 494. Science, cf. Natural sciences, Social sciences. Scientific method, 524-25. Scotland, academies in, 170-71; or- ganization of education, 273. Secondary education, historical de- velopment in America, 161-200; secondary education in foreign countries, 203-58; in relation to elementary education, 261-98; in relation to higher education, 303- 36; social principles determining secondary education, 340-64; aims and functions, 367-83; program of studies, 387-658; curriculum organization, 662-90; phases of external organization, 693-711; phases of internal organization, 712-21. Secondary-school pupils, physical traits, 3-32; mental traits, 34-71; individual differences, 74-115; numbers, classification, and dis- tribution, 118-55, 671-74. Sectarian schools, 184, 361. Seeley, J. R., on history instruction, 557. Segregation, cf. Coeducation. Selection, 89. Selective function of secondary edu- cation, 380-82, 669. Self-government, 719-21. Senior high school, curriculum or- ganization, 687-90; general econ' INDEX 739 omy, 694-98. Cf. Junior high school, Curriculums, Comprehen- sive secondary school. Sense discrimination, 36. Serial or periodic development, the- ory of, 39 ff. Sewing, cf. Domestic education. Sex, individual differences due to, 108-15. Cf. Adolescence, Coedu- cation, Physical traits, Mental traits, Individual differences, Girls, Puberty. Sex hygiene and sex pedagogy, 650- 51. Cf. Adolescence, Puberty, Coeducation. Sex instincts, development of, 59, 61. Cf. Adolescence, Puberty, Indi- vidual differences, Coeducation. Shallies, G. W., on the distribution of high-school graduates, 152. Shopwork, cf. Industrial education, Vocational education, Practical arts education. Short-unit courses, 686, 687. Cf. Diagnostic education, Diagnostic function. Shrewsbury, 248. Six-grade secondary school, 291-98, 684-90, 693-98. Cf. Junior high school, Senior high school, Curric- ulums, Organization. Size of family and elimination, 135-36. Size of secondary school, 120-21, 582, 677, 683, 699-700. Skewed distribution, 83-84. Skull, growth of, 16. Sleight, W. G., on transfer values, 400, 406-07. Small, W. H., on the Latin grammar school, 169. Smedley, F. W., on physical traits, 13, 15-16. Smith, A. T., on foreign school sys- tems, 274. Smith, D. E., on the values of mathe- matical study, 488, 494. Smith, F. O., on the correlation of pupils' standing in high school and college, 331-32. Smith, H. B., on industrial educa- tion, 581-82. Smith-Hughes Law for Vocational Education, 574-75, 594, 606. Snedden, D., on vocational secon- dary education, 705-06. Social-civic aim of secondary edu- cation, general treatment, 367-69, 667-68; in relation to literature, 438-39, 441-42; in relation to for- eign language study, 455-57; in relation to social science study, 544-69; as related to physical train- ing and athletics, 651-58; as re- lated to military training, 658; as related to curriculum organization, 667-68, 675-76; as related to ex- tra-curriculum education, 715-17; as related to the social organiza- tion of the school, 719-21. Social evolution and educational adjustment, 344-64. Social factors involved in the reor- ganization of grades seven to nine, 264-65. Social heredity, 95-100. Social ideals and social organization determining secondary education, 341-44. Social institutions, changes in, affect- ing secondary education, 349-64, 577-78, 584-85, 594-96, 606-08, 612-13. Social integration and social differ- entiation, 95-100, 340-41, S47--49. Cf. Social principles, Integration, Integrating function, Social hered- ity. Social organization of secondary education, cf. Social ideals, Social evolution and educational adjust- ment, Social principles, Organiza- tion of social education, Curricu- lums, Extra-curriculum educa- tion, etc. Social principles determining sec- ondary education, 340-64. Social sciences, general treatment. 534-69. Cf. History, Civics. Com- munity civics, Economics, Litera- ture, Problems of American De- mocracy. Social solidarity, cf. Social integration. 740 INDEX Sociology, 565-67. Spain, 205. Spanish, general treatment of for- eign language instruction, 447-77. Cf. also, 320, 413,414, 590-92. Cf. also Foreign languages. Specialization, 687-90, 698-704, 717- 19. Special-type schools, 698-704. Spelling, individual differences in, 76. Spencer, H., on education for leisure, 371-72; on the values of natural science study, 513-16. Stages of mental development, 39 ff. Standard deviation, 85. Starch, D., experiments on the re- sults of foreign language study, 476. Starch, D., and Elliott, E. C., on va- riability in grading, 327. State aid, to academies, 176-78; to secondary education, 199-200. State systems of secondary educa- tion, 197-200. State universities and the secondary school, 307. Stenography, cf. Clerical education, Commercial education. Cf. also, 180, 413. Strayer, G. D., on retardation, 124; on elimination, 128, 129, 130. Studies, cf. Program of studies, sub- ject titles. Studienanstalten, 216 ff. Cf. Ger- many, education in. Study of Nations, 569. Subject-matter, 51-52, 69-70. Cf. also Instruction, Program of stud- ies. Subject values, criteria of, 387-418. Subjects, cf . Program of studies, sub- ject titles. Suicide, 649. Supervised study, 686-87, 713-15. Surveying, 180, 186, 413. Sweden, 205, 273. Swimming, 641. Switzerland, 205. Teachers, numbers, per school, per pupil, 120-21; in German higher schools, 223-24; in French higher schools, 243-44; American and for- eign compared, 230-31; demand and supply, 119; in elementary and secondary schools, 280. Teacher-training courses in the high school, 308-10. Technical high schools, 573, 593. Terman, L. M., on physical traits, 11, 14, 16-17, 19; on sex variability, 113. Textile trades, 599-601. Thompson, F. V., on commercial oc- cupations, 583. Thompson, H. B., on sex differences, 110. Thorndike, E. L., on the develop- ment of mental traits, 45-46, 48- 49, 58-60; on racial traits, 92; on sex differences, 110-11, 113, 114- 15; on elimination, 128, 129, 130; on the standing of pupils on ad- mission examinations and in col- lege, 328; on the transfer of im- proved efficiency, 395, 396, 398, 399, 403, 406, 408-09. Thought, relation of language to, 423 ff., 462 ff. Transfer of improved efficiency, gen- eral treatment, 394-412; as related to foreign language study, 459-62; as related to mathematical study, 494-500; as related to natural sci- ence study, 516-17, 522-25; as re lated to social science study, 554- 56; as related to practical and manual arts, 576-77; as related to stenography, 586-87; as related to agricultural education, 608. Trigonometry, general treatment of mathematical instruction, 481- 503. Cf. also, 179, 180, 186, 320, 413, 414. Tuberculosis, 649. Typewriting, cf. Clerical education, Commercial education. Typhoid fever, 649. Under-age pupils, cf. Acceleration. Units of high-school study, 316 ff. University, cf. College. INDEX 741 Urban communities, population, 357; secondary schools in, 120-21. Urbanization, effects on secondary education, 357-58. Values of subjects, general treatment of subject values and their criteria, 387^18. Cf. subject titles, Eng- lish, Foreign languages, Mathe- matics, Natural sciences, Social sciences, Practical arts education, Vocational education, ^Esthetic arts, Physical education, etc. Van Denburg, J. K., on age distribu- tion of first-year high-school pupils, 77; on the home conditions of high- school pupils, 101-04; on vocation- al choices of high-school pupils, 104-06; on pupils' attitudes toward high-school education, 107; analy- sis of factors of elimination, 133- 39, 141-44. Variability, cf . Individual differences. Variables in the curriculums, 674- 75, 676-80, 686, 687, 689-90. Vermont, Latin grammar schools, 168. Vernacular, cf. English. Virginia, academies, 174; Latin gram- mar schools, 162. Vital capacity, 15-16. Vocabulary, 425 ff. Vocational choices of high-school pupils, 104-06. Cf. Vocational education, Vocational guidance, Diagnostic education, Diagnostic function. Vocational education, general treat- ment, 572-615, 704-11; as affected by changes in the home and family life, 353-55; as affected by changes in industrial life, 361-64; as af- fected by changes in community life, 356-60; in Germany, 222. Cf. also, 121, 288-89. Cf. Clerical education, Commercial education, Agricultural education, Indus- trial education, Domestic educa- tion, Pre vocational education, Eco- nomic-vocational aim of second- ary education, Vocational guid- ance. Vocational guidance, general treat- ment of educational guidance, 717- 19. Cf. Educational guidance, Diagnostic education, Diagnostic function, Educational Diagnosis, Elimination, Individual differ- ences, Distribution and Classifica- tion of pupils, Vocational choices, Expectancy of stay, etc. Volksschule, 208 ff. Cf. Germany, education in. Vorschide, 208 ff . Cf. Germany, edu- cation in. Weight, growth of children in, 8-14. West, G. M., on growth and school progress, 12-13. Westminster, 248. Winchester, 248. Wisconsin, state aid in, 200. Woodworking trades, 591-601. Worcester (Massachusetts), children of foreign-born parentage, 99-100. Yocum, A. D., on mathematical study, 487. Young, J. W. A., on mathematical study, 487, 488, 489, 491, 494, 496. Zoology, general treatment of natu- ral sciences, 506-29. Cf. also, 180, 188, 320, 413, 414, Cf. Natural Sciences, Biology. Zymotic diseases, 644. NEW ISSUES IN THE Riverside Literature Series For the Grades ALDKICH'S Marjorie Daw and Other Stories. No. 265. ANTIN'S At School in the Promised Land. No. 245. BURROUGHS'S The Wit of a Duck, and Other Papers. No. 259. IRVING'S Tales from the Alhambra. Adapted by Josephine Brower. No. 260. Kipling Stories and Poems Every Child should Know. Part I, No. 257. Part II, No. 258. MUIR'S The Boyhood of a Naturalist. No. 247. SHARP'S Ways of the Woods. No. 266. WIGGIN'S Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm. No. 264. Selections for Reading and Memorizing. Grades I- VIII. Seven volumes, Nos. FF-MM inclusive. For High Schools BOSWELL'S The Life of Johnson. Abridged. No. 248. CLARKE'S A Treasury of War Poetry. No. 262. Liberty, Peace, and Justice. (Documents and Addresses 1776- 1918.) No. 261. KELLER'S The Story of My Life. No. 253. PALMER'S Self-Cultivation in English. No. 249. PEABODY'S The Piper. No. 263. RICHARDS'S High Tide. An Anthology. No. 256. For Colleges HOWELLS'S A Modern Instance. No. 252. LOCKWOOD'S English Sonnets. No. 244. RITTENHOUSE'S The Little Book of American Poets. No. 255. RITTENHOUSE'S The Little Book of Modern Verse. No. 254. SHEPARD'S Shakespeare Questions. No. 246. SHERIDAN'S The School for Scandal. No. 250. Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, and Piers the Ploughman, No. 251. Houghton Miff tin Company 1940 PROBLEMS OF CONDUCT BY DURANT DRAKE Professor of Philosophy, Vassar College An Introductory Survey of Ethics THE Boston Transcript says : "It is the great merit of Professor Drake's book that it moves always in a concrete sphere of life as we daily live it. It never moralizes, it never lays down obiter dicta, it simply talks over with us our personal prob- lems precisely as a keen, experienced, and always sympathetic friend might do. Through and through scientific and scholarly, it is never academic in method and matter." BY DURANT DRAKE THIS book, like Professor Drake's Problems of Conduct, represents a course of lectures given for several years to undergraduates of Wesleyan University. 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